Opioid Use Disorder

Terminology

Clinical Clarification

• Opioid use disorder is a pattern of opioid use that is problematic and leads to significant distress or impairment

  • Term opioid use disorder has replaced terms opioid abuse and opioid dependence in diagnostic lexicon ^[1]

  • Defined as occurrence of at least 2 of 11 specific criteria related to opioid use over a 1-year period ^[1]

• Chronic, relapsing medical condition associated with compulsive drug-seeking behavior, physical dependence, and tolerance

• Associated with increased morbidity and death

  • Opioids accounted for about 55,000 overdose deaths in 2024 ^[5]

  • US Department of Health and Human Services declared the opioid crisis a nationwide public health emergency in 2017 ^[6]

Classification

• Based on severity of diagnostic criteria symptoms ^[1]

  • Mild: presence of 2 to 3 symptoms

  • Moderate: presence of 4 to 5 symptoms

  • Severe: presence of 6 or more symptoms

• Based on time frame of opioid misuse ^[1]

  • Opioid use disorder (no modifier): currently meets or has met opioid use disorder criteria within the past 3 months

  • Opioid use disorder in early remission: not currently meeting opioid use disorder criteria but met criteria between 3 and 12 months ago

  • Opioid use disorder in sustained remission: has not met opioid use disorder criteria for more than 1 year (includes patients taking medication for opioid use disorder)

Diagnosis

Clinical Presentation

History

• Signs and symptoms reflect compulsive, prolonged self-administration of opioids for no legitimate medical purpose, or if a medical condition requiring opioid treatment is present, opioids are used in doses greatly exceeding the amount needed ^[1]

• Comprehensive medical assessment is imperative

  • Obtaining information from other sources, such as family members (with appropriate patient consent), can also provide important information about drug use

  • Pay particular attention to the following: ^[4][7]

    • Concomitant medical conditions, including infectious diseases (eg, hepatitis, HIV, tuberculosis, infections related to injection use), and acute trauma

    • Evaluation of past and current alcohol and substance use; opioid use often co-occurs with other substance use disorders

      • For opioids, include type and amount used recently, route of administration, last use, and problems resulting from drug use

      • Review prescription drug monitoring program, if available; data may identify patients receiving opioid prescriptions from multiple sources ^[4]

        • Electronic databases that track controlled substance prescriptions within a state allow health care authorities to obtain timely information regarding prescribing and patient behaviors ^[8]

        • Sharing between states can be facilitated in most cases ^[9]

        • Do not capture data from patients using drugs prescribed for others

        • State laws vary regarding prescription drug monitoring programs; clinicians should be familiar with associated legal requirements

      • Concomitant use of alcohol, sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics with opioids can lead to respiratory depression

    • Addiction treatment history

      • Includes previous pharmacotherapy and assessment of withdrawal potential

    • Psychiatric history to evaluate for possible co-occurring psychiatric disorders

      • Complete assessment of mental health status and possible psychiatric disorders

    • Social and environmental factors

      • Can identify facilitators and barriers to addiction treatment, specifically pharmacotherapy and best environment for treatment

    • Addictive behaviors (eg, gambling, video games, exercise)

    • Family history of substance use and addiction treatment, addictive behavior, or psychiatric illness

      • Family history of opioid use disorder or other substance use disorders is common

• Symptoms of opioid use disorder can be grouped into 4 general categories ^[1][10]

  • Impaired control

    • Taking opioids in larger amounts or over longer period than intended

    • Persistent desire or unsuccessful attempts to stop or reduce use

    • Spending significant time obtaining, using, or recovering from use of opioids

    • Craving opioids

  • Social impairment

    • Failure to fulfill home, work, or school obligations because of repeated opioid use

    • Continued opioid use despite experiencing social or interpersonal problems

    • Giving up or reducing important social, recreational, or occupational activities

  • Risky use

    • Recurrent opioid use in hazardous situations (eg, driving)

    • Continued opioid use despite knowledge of physical or psychological problems related to use

    • Use of illegal drugs, especially when unknown contents such as diluents (eg, talc) or addition of unknown drugs (eg, fentanyl) may be present

  • Pharmacologic criteria

    • Tolerance: needing increased amounts of opioids to achieve same effect

      • Typically develops fairly rapidly for analgesic, respiratory-depressant, and euphoria-producing properties; relatively little tolerance occurs to constipation or pupillary constriction ^[10]

    • Physical dependence: physiologic state of adaptation to a substance, without which symptoms and signs of withdrawal occur ^[11]

    • These pharmacologic criteria are not considered to be met for those taking opioids solely under appropriate medical supervision ^[1]

    • Presence of these criteria reflects physiologic changes and does not alone indicate opioid use disorder

• Associated features of opioid use disorder

  • History of drug-related crime may be present (eg, possession or distribution of controlled substances, larceny, robbery, forgery, receiving stolen goods)

  • Social difficulties related to drug use may occur at all socioeconomic levels; includes divorce or other marital difficulties, irregular employment, and unemployment

  • Health professionals and those with ready access to legal opioids may have a pattern that involves problems with professional hospital staff, state licensing boards, or other administrative authorities, and is also reflective of illegal activities

  • High-risk sexual behavior and history of sexually transmitted infections are frequently present, particularly in younger patients ^[12]

  • Medical complications of opioids include constipation, hypogonadism in males, and amenorrhea and osteoporosis in females

• Symptoms of opioid withdrawal may be identified and are a consideration in treatment options

  • May be spontaneous (discontinuation or abrupt reduction of opioid dose) or precipitated (administration of opioid antagonist [eg, naloxone, naltrexone] or partial agonist [eg, buprenorphine])

    • Precipitated withdrawal occurs faster and may be much more severe, occasionally requiring hospitalization

  • Onset of withdrawal after opioid discontinuation varies with half-life of particular opioid ^[12]

    • Short-acting opioids (eg, morphine, heroin, fentanyl): symptoms appear within 12 hours of last dose, peak at 24 to 48 hours, and ease after 3 to 5 days ^[4]

    • Longer-acting opioids (eg, methadone, oxycodone extended-release): symptoms may take 30 hours to appear after last dose; may last up to 10 days ^[4]

      • Symptoms may be milder than those after equivalent doses of short-acting opioids

  • Initial symptoms include anxiety, restlessness, agitation, and drug craving

  • Symptoms of progressive withdrawal include muscle or joint aches, abdominal cramping, nausea, loose stools, and insomnia

Physical examination

• Patients with opioid use disorder often present with no physical signs; may present with signs of opioid intoxication or withdrawal or signs of IV drug use

  • Intoxication

    • Sedation, often with periodic loss of consciousness or brief sleep (head nodding)

    • Decreased respiratory rate (rate of 12 breaths per minute or lower, consistent with opioid intoxication); may be accompanied by bradycardia, hypotension, and hypothermia

    • Constricted pupils (pupil diameter less than 2 mm with decreased reactivity; may not be present if other drugs used concurrently) ^[13]

    • Drooping eyelids

    • Scratching (to relieve itching caused by histamine release)

  • Acute withdrawal

    • Mydriasis (dilated pupils)

    • Diaphoresis

    • Vomiting and diarrhea

    • Tachycardia and hypertension

    • Piloerection (gooseflesh)

    • Rhinorrhea and lacrimation

    • Yawning

    • Observed restlessness

• People who inject drugs may have the following:

  • Recent injection site marks (small red, inflamed puncture wounds with slight bruising surrounding the marks)

    • Old injection sites show pigmentation change and atrophied skin

  • Thrombosed veins

  • Skin abscesses or cellulitis; wounds may appear at sites not injected if xylazine is present in opioid used

Causes and Risk Factors

Causes

• Most opioids bind as agonists to µ receptor and typically produce effects commonly associated with opioids (eg, miosis, respiratory depression, analgesia, euphoria, drowsiness) ^[10]

  • Classes of opioids ^[14]

    • Naturally derived (from opium): morphine, opium, codeine, and thebaine

    • Semisynthetic: buprenorphine, dihydrocodeine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone, oxymorphone, levorphanol, and heroin

    • Synthetic: fentanyl, methadone, and tramadol

  • Highly addictive and can cause rapid progression to physiologic tolerance and withdrawal

• Addiction is a complex disease that affects brain function and behavior

  • Involves alteration of brain structure and function; affects multiple brain circuits, including those involved in reward and motivation, learning and memory, and inhibitory control over behavior

    • Effects of prolonged drug exposure compromise the ability to choose; drug seeking and use become compulsive, bypassing a person's self-control or willpower

  • These alterations remain after drug use has stopped

    • May explain why patients with opioid use disorder remain at risk for relapse even after long periods of abstinence despite adverse consequences

• Exact process of opioid addiction has not been clearly defined; contributing factors include the reinforcing properties and availability of opioids, social and environmental factors, genetic vulnerability, personality, and existing psychiatric disorders

  • Opioids all have highly reinforcing pharmacologic properties ^[12]

    • Positive reinforcement

      • Intrinsic property of opioids is activation of dopamine receptors, a final common pathway of reward (eg, euphoria, analgesia)

      • Drives early stages of opioid use disorder to achieve positive effects of drug

    • Negative reinforcement

      • Produced by opioid withdrawal after physiologic dependence has occurred

        • Opioid withdrawal activates region of brain (locus coeruleus) resulting in increased systemic sympathetic tone and high-intensity cravings ^[12]

        • Increased sympathetic tone leads to some characteristic features of withdrawal (eg, chills, diarrhea, nausea, cramps, anxiety)

      • Later stages of opioid use to avoid negative effects of abstinence

  • Substance use disorder and dependence are heritable disorders

    • Approximately 40% to 60% of susceptibility to substance use disorders is associated with genetic factors ^[15]

  • Environmental and social factors are believed to affect factors such as drug availability and likelihood of initial use ^[12]

    • Exposure to opioid drug class, both for medical and nonmedical use

    • Use of or permissive attitudes toward opioids by peers, family members, or role models

    • Ease of access to opioids, both prescription and nonmedical use (eg, heroin)

      • Use in family and/or friends

      • Practitioner opioid prescribing patterns may be a factor in opioid use disorder and overdose ^[16]

  • Individual temperaments (eg, impulsivity, novelty seeking) have propensity to develop a substance use disorder ^[1]

  • Psychiatric diseases commonly co-occurring with opioid addiction include:

    • Other substance use disorders ^[17]

      • Strong associations exist between alcohol and cocaine use and subsequent development of an opioid use disorder ^[17]

    • Depression

    • Anxiety

    • Conduct disorder in childhood and adolescence

• Progression of use often follows trend to maximize drug bioavailability and effect; limited access to prescription opioids may also influence progression to use by injection ^[12]

  • Use may start with oral prescription opioids, which can lead to inhaled prescription opioids, inhaled heroin, and ultimately to injection of heroin or fentanyl (most potent and bioavailable method)

    • Inhalation may involve smoking (heating heroin in foil and inhaling smoke) or nasal snorting (heroin or fentanyl)

Risk factors and/or associations

Age

• Can begin at any age, but more commonly observed in late teens or early 20s ^[1]

  • Young adults (aged 18-25 years) have highest prevalence of both prescription opioid and heroin use ^[12]

  • Use of opioids at earlier age associated with a higher likelihood of development of severe use disorder, increased clinical severity, and worse consequences ^[12]

Sex

• Males are more likely to use most types of nonprescribed drugs for recreational use (eg, heroin, misuse of prescription drugs) ^[18]

  • Both sexes are equally likely to develop a substance use disorder

• Sex differences are variable regarding opioid use severity, craving, medical conditions, and associated social and functional impairment ^[19]

  • In general, females progress from use to physiologic dependence more quickly than males ^[19]

  • Females have a greater likelihood of psychiatric comorbidity (eg, anxiety, depression), medical problems, employment problems, and family or social impairment ^[19]

  • Females may be more susceptible to craving and relapse ^[18]

Genetics ^[15]

• Characterized by genetic heterogeneity, much of which remains unknown

• Can raise individual risk of addiction to a specific type of drug

  • Genetically determined differences noted in drug metabolism, response to drug administration, and temperamental factors (eg, impulsivity, novelty seeking)

• Variations in μ receptor (OPRM1) gene have been studied, but association with rates of opioid dependence is not clearly established ^[12]

Ethnicity/race

• White people represent most of the persons with opioid use disorder ^[20]

Other risk factors/associations

• Chronic pain conditions (eg, spinal pain, joint pain, general chronic pain, osteoarthritis, migraines)

  • Common in people with opioid use disorder and often present before first diagnosis of opioid use disorder ^[21]

  • Long-term opioid therapy is commonly prescribed as treatment of severe chronic pain; opioid treatment of chronic noncancer pain remains controversial owing to its questionable efficacy and association with opioid misuse and use disorders in some people ^[21]

• Misuse of prescription opioids is a risk factor for heroin or fentanyl use

  • 80% of people with opioid use disorder report misuse of prescription opioids in the past ^[22]

Diagnostic Procedures

Primary diagnostic tools

• Opioid use disorder is primarily diagnosed by patient history and comprehensive assessment, including a physical examination ^[4]

  • Diagnose opioid use disorder when patient meets at least 2 of 11 revised diagnostic criteria (DSM-5-TR) ^[1]

    • Problematic pattern of opioid use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least 2 of the following, occurring within a 12-month period: ^[1]

      • Often taking opioids in larger amounts or over a longer period than intended

      • Persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control opioid use

      • Significant time spent in activities necessary to obtain, use, or recover from effects of opioids

      • Craving or strong desire or urge to use opioids

      • Recurrent opioid use resulting in failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home

      • Continued opioid use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by effects of opioids

      • Giving up or reducing important social, occupational, or recreational activities because of opioid use

      • Recurrent opioid use in situations in which it is physically hazardous

      • Continued opioid use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the substance

      • Tolerance, defined by either

        • Need for markedly increased amounts of opioids to achieve intoxication or desired effect

        • Markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of an opioid

        • This criterion is not considered to be met for those taking opioids solely under appropriate medical supervision

      • Withdrawal, as manifested by either ^[1]

        • Characteristic opioid withdrawal syndrome

        • Taking opioids (or a closely related substance) to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms

        • This criterion is not considered to be met for those taking opioids solely under appropriate medical supervision

    • Specify if:

      • In early remission: after full criteria for opioid use disorder were previously met, none of the criteria for opioid use disorder have been met for at least 3 months but for less than 12 months (with exception that "craving or strong desire or urge to use opioids" may be met)

      • In sustained remission: after full criteria for opioid use disorder were previously met, none of the criteria for opioid use disorder have been met at any time during a period of 12 months or longer (with exception that "craving or strong desire or urge to use opioids" may be met)

    • Specify if: ^[1]

      • On maintenance therapy: additional specifier used if person is taking prescribed medication (ie, methadone or buprenorphine) and none of the criteria for opioid use disorder has been met for that class of medication (except tolerance to, or withdrawal from, the agonist)

        • Also applies to those persons being maintained on a partial agonist or antagonist, or a full antagonist (ie, oral or depot naltrexone)

      • In a controlled environment: additional specifier used if person is in an environment where access to opioids is restricted (eg, closely supervised and substance-free jails, therapeutic units, locked hospital units)

    • Specify current severity level

      • Mild: presence of 2 to 3 symptoms

      • Moderate: presence of 4 to 5 symptoms

      • Severe: presence of 6 or more symptoms

• Various withdrawal scales can assist in identifying and quantifying severity of opioid withdrawal symptoms, including:

  • COWS (Clinical Opioid Withdrawal Scale): uses both signs and symptoms (objective and subjective) ^[23]

• Initial laboratory workup may include CBC, liver function, hepatitis B and C serology, tuberculosis (t-spot), and HIV testing; test female patients of childbearing age for pregnancy ^[4][24]

  • Consider testing for sexually transmitted infections, including chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis ^[4]

• Urine drug testing during comprehensive assessment process is recommended; however, buprenorphine may be initiated via telemedicine without urine drug testing

  • Objective means to verify patient-reported history of use, to show discrepancy between self-reported drug use and substances detected, and to help determine proper treatment ^[25]

    • Use results in combination with patient history, psychosocial assessment, and physical examination

  • Can provide information about recent drug use; however: ^[4]

    • Positive drug test result is not diagnostic of physical dependence, opioid use disorder, or its severity

    • Negative urine test result does not rule out opioid use, opioid use disorder, or physical dependence

  • Many tests are available, with variable reliability and validity

    • Interpretation requires thorough knowledge of methodology and reliability

  • Other sample matrices are available (eg, blood, saliva); use individualized according to patient's needs ^[25]

  • Be aware of mandatory reporting requirements ^[26]

  • Be aware of limitations of various testing matrices

Laboratory

• Urine drug testing ^[14]

  • Understand limitations of tests used, including detection limits and which substances can be detected

  • Used clinically to identify drug use, misuse, diversion, or a suspected substance use disorder or relapse

  • 2 types

    • Urine drug screen ^[14]

      • Qualitative test performed at point of care (eg, office setting) or by laboratory; provides relatively rapid results

      • Consists of immunoassays that use antibodies to detect drug or drug-class metabolites in urine; interpreted by visual analysis of test result

        • Standard drug screening panels screen for amphetamines, cocaine, marijuana, opioids, phencyclidine, and often benzodiazepines

          • Screens for opioids metabolized to morphine (eg, codeine, morphine) but not other opioids such as oxycodone, fentanyl, hydrocodone, buprenorphine, and methadone; order specific tests to detect these drugs

          • Intended for workplace drug testing; substances targeted and their associated cutoff levels are not appropriate in clinical care of patients with addiction ^[25]

        • Other commercial immunoassays available include semisynthetic opioids (eg, buprenorphine, hydrocodone, oxycodone) and synthetic opioids (eg, methadone, fentanyl)

        • Base drug testing panels on patient's drug of choice, prescribed medications, and drugs common within patient's geographic location and peer group ^[25]

      • May also detect substances with similar characteristics (cross-reactivity) leading to false-positive test results

        • Nonopioids with potential for false-positive test results for opioids include quinolones, rifampin, poppy seeds, and dextromethorphan, especially at low cutoff thresholds ^[14]

      • Use as screening test; results are presumptive and prone to false-positive and false-negative outcomes

        • Incorrect interpretation can lead to legal consequences, unemployment, and unnecessary medications

      • Apply clinical judgment, patient history, and other collaborative information to determine whether confirmatory testing is warranted

    • Confirmatory testing of positive drug screen results ^[14]

      • Methods include gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

        • Able to identify specific molecular structures and quantify amount of drug or substance present

        • Requires highly trained personnel and is time-consuming

        • Requires understanding of which substances can be detected

      • Generally, positive immunoassay results only require definitive testing when they conflict with patient's account of drug use or to detect specific substances not identified, quantify levels present, or refine accuracy of results ^[25]

        • Can help inform decisions with major clinical or nonclinical patient implications (eg, treatment transition, changes in medication therapies, changes in legal status) ^[25]

        • Perform definitive test if patient disputes findings of presumptive test ^[25]

    • Confirmatory testing of negative point of care drug screen results

      • Not done on all negative point of care urine test results, but done randomly on some

      • Methods include gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

        • May show substances not tested for on point of care testing that inform decisions with major clinical or nonclinical patient implications

  • Interpretation

    • Cutoff levels

      • Specify levels required to produce positive results for immunoassays and confirmation testing; established to help minimize false-positive results, especially in workplace drug testing ^[14]

        • Results lower than established cutoff value are reported as negative; does not indicate substance is not present, rather that level did not meet cutoff level

      • Be aware of cutoff levels used when interpreting urine drug testing in clinical decision-making; use of lower cutoff values may be indicated (eg, when testing for medication adherence) ^[14]

    • Detection times ^[14]

      • Vary with drug characteristics (eg, half-life, dosing intervals and strength, metabolites, drug interactions) and patient factors (eg, BMI, urine and pH levels, renal or liver impairment)

      • Approximate drug detection time in urine

        • Codeine and heroin: 48 hours

        • Morphine: 48 to 72 hours

        • Oxycodone and hydromorphone: 2 to 4 days

        • Methadone: 3 days

        • Fentanyl: 7-14 days

Differential Diagnosis

Most common

• Other substance intoxication ^[1]

  • Alcohol and sedative-hypnotic intoxication can clinically resemble opioid intoxication

  • May be differentiated by absence of pupillary constriction

  • Diagnosis aided by lack of response to naloxone challenge

    • If coingestion exists, naloxone will not reverse all sedative effects. Fentanyl may require higher doses of naloxone

• Clinically appropriate use of opioid medications

  • People may take opioid medications, as practitioner prescribed for legitimate medical indications for long period

  • May develop physiologic signs and symptoms of tolerance and withdrawal also observed in patients with opioid use disorder

    • However, does not result in symptoms of impaired control, social impairment, and risky use

  • Differentiated by applying diagnostic criteria for opioid use disorder

• Other substance use disorders (ie, alcohol, sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use disorder)

  • May co-occur with opioid use disorder

  • Signs and symptoms may clinically resemble opioid use disorder

  • Similarly associated with impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and pharmacologic criteria of tolerance and withdrawal

  • Differentiated based on thorough history, psychosocial assessment, and physical examination; drug testing can add objective evidence to corroborate information but is not diagnostic

Treatment

Goals

• General treatment goals

  • Stop or decrease opioid use

  • Prevent or reduce frequency and intensity of relapses

  • Sustain periods of remission

  • Optimize level of functioning during periods of remission

    • Reestablish relationships with family and friends

    • Gain or maintain employment

• Goals of pharmacotherapy

  • Suppress opioid withdrawal (eg, with methadone or buprenorphine) or prevent relapse after detoxification (eg, with naltrexone)

  • Block effects of opioids

  • Reduce craving; stop or reduce opioid use

  • Promote or facilitate patient engagement in activities related to recovery, including psychosocial therapies

Disposition

Admission criteria

American Society of Addiction Medicine provides criteria for service planning and placement ^[27]

• Some cases of mild opioid use disorder can be managed by primary care with medication and, if necessary, referral for outpatient counseling

• For moderate and severe opioid use disorder, a specialist in addiction medicine can best determine most appropriate American Society of Addiction Medicine criteria to assign

Inpatient or medically supervised residential treatment may be indicated for patients with severe withdrawal symptoms, need for significant psychosocial support, or management of medical comorbidities

• American Society of Addiction Medicine provides criteria for levels of care for withdrawal management for adults ^[28]

• For pregnant patients, some obstetricians begin opioid agonist therapy in inpatient setting; not always necessary or available, but allows close monitoring of medication response ^[26]

• Patients with significant co-occurring substance use disorders, especially severe alcohol or sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use, may require higher level of care; withdrawal may result in seizures, hallucinosis, or delirium

• Patients with severe or unstable psychiatric symptoms may require hospitalization

• Patients with significant medical comorbidities may benefit from admission

Criteria for ICU admission

• Rarely, precipitated withdrawal from administration of naloxone may be severe enough to warrant admission

Recommendations for specialist referral

• Refer to a behavioral health care practitioner to determine optimal type and intensity of psychosocial treatment

Treatment Options

Patients often have concomitant medical or psychiatric conditions requiring immediate attention

• Treat or appropriately refer any urgent or emergent medical or psychiatric problems, including drug-related impairment or overdose ^[4]

  • Resuscitate volume-depleted patients with IV crystalloid fluids; monitor electrolyte levels

  • Support respiration with bag-valve mask (or intubation), if necessary

  • Administer naloxone for opioid overdose ^[29]

Withdrawal management

• Involves medically supervised treatment with medication (ie, methadone or buprenorphine) ^[30]

  • Recommended over abrupt cessation of opioids, because this may lead to strong cravings and/or acute withdrawal syndrome and increased risk for relapse, overdose, and overdose death ^[4]

  • α₂-Adrenergic agonists (eg, lofexidine, clonidine) are safe and effective for management of some opioid withdrawal symptoms but less effective in reducing symptoms of withdrawal compared with methadone and buprenorphine

• Not to be used as sole treatment of opioid use disorder owing to increased risk of relapse and associated safety concerns ^[4]

  • Follow with ongoing maintenance medication and psychosocial treatment according to patient's needs

Treatment of opioid use disorder

• Pharmacotherapy (medications for opioid use disorder), in conjunction with psychosocial interventions, is the cornerstone of treatment

  • Use of medications, ideally combined with counseling and other behavioral therapies, is effective in helping patients stabilize their lives and reduce substance use. Behavioral therapies are recommended but should not be required ^[2]

  • Consider patient preference, past treatment, and treatment setting when determining medication

  • Recommended for patients with opioid use disorder who are able to give informed consent and who have no specific contraindication to medication chosen, including adolescents and young adults ^[4][31]

  • FDA-approved pharmacotherapy for treatment of opioid use disorder includes methadone and buprenorphine; naltrexone approved for prevention of opioid relapse after detoxification ^[32]

    • Methadone

      • Full opioid agonist; long acting (24-30 hours) ^[4]

        • Occupies μ receptors, relieving withdrawal symptoms and reducing or eliminating cravings for opioids

        • Taken PO; reaches brain slowly and dampens euphoric effects

      • Patients need to show withdrawal symptoms but no signs of sedation or intoxication

      • Can only be dispensed through federal- and state-approved opioid treatment programs; initially requires daily supervised dosing to help prevent misuse and diversion ^[4]

        • Regulations require monitored administration of methadone until patient's clinical response and behavior show that unmonitored prescribed dosing is appropriate

        • If patient is admitted inpatient, a practitioner or authorized hospital staff personnel may administer or dispense opioids to maintain or detoxify a person as an incidental adjunct to medical or surgical treatment of conditions other than addiction

      • Recommended for patients who may need daily doses and supervision or who are unsuccessful with buprenorphine treatment

      • Some studies show patients are slightly more likely to remain in treatment with methadone compared with buprenorphine ^[33]

      • Has substantial QT-prolonging effects; can increase risk of ventricular arrhythmia (torsades de pointes), especially at higher doses ^[34]

        • Other adverse effects include constipation, sweating, insomnia, and decreased libido or sexual performance ^[30]

    • Buprenorphine (with or without naloxone, an opioid antagonist)

      • Partial opioid agonist ^[4]

        • Relieves drug cravings without euphoria or dangerous adverse effects of other opioids

          • Maximal effect is less than that of full opioids; reaches ceiling where additional doses do not increase effect

          • Safer than full agonists, because respiratory depression is limited by ceiling effect

        • High affinity for μ receptor; displaces full agonists (eg, morphine, methadone) and reduces their effects

          • Can cause precipitated withdrawal if insufficient time has passed since last opioid dose

          • Full agonists cannot displace buprenorphine

      • Typically initiated when patient is showing objective signs of opioid withdrawal, to reduce risk of precipitated withdrawal ^[4]

        • Generally at least 6 to 12 hours after last use of short-acting opioids or 24 to 72 hours after last use of long-acting opioids (eg, methadone) ^[4]

        • COWS score of at least 11 to 12 is indicative of sufficient level of withdrawal to start treatment (induction) with buprenorphine ^[4]

        • Once objective signs of withdrawal are confirmed, administer a dose of buprenorphine sufficient to suppress withdrawal symptoms ^[4]

      • If a patient is not in withdrawal or is likely to have full agonist opioids still in their system (eg, methadone), consider low-dose induction

        • Low-dose induction, also referred to as microdosing or microinduction, involves gradual titration of buprenorphine to reduce or avoid the symptoms of opioid withdrawal that may be experienced with traditional induction ^[35][36]

        • Low-dose induction may be helpful in patients with a history of long-term fentanyl use ^[37]

        • Low-dose induction may also be used to transition patients from methadone to buprenorphine

      • Available forms include buprenorphine sublingual tablets and extended-release injection and buprenorphine-naloxone sublingual film and tablets or buccal film ^[4]

        • Combined buprenorphine-naloxone preferred over buprenorphine monotherapy in most patients

          • Less likely to be misused or diverted; oral naloxone has poor bioavailability but becomes bioeffective if injected and can precipitate withdrawal ^[12]

      • Generally well tolerated; adverse effects can include headache, anxiety, sweating, constipation, oral mucosal irritation, and sleep disturbance ^[4]

      • Discontinuation and tapering are a slow process (indefinite duration) and should be closely monitored; typically take several months

      • Ongoing maintenance treatment with buprenorphine is more effective in maintaining abstinence from opioids than tapering or discontinuation of buprenorphine therapy ^[38]

    • Naltrexone and extended-release naltrexone

      • Opioid antagonists; long acting; naltrexone (24-30 hours) and extended-release (up to 30 days)

        • Block physiologic and subjective effects of exogenous opioids; produce no opioid-like effect and no physiologic dependence ^[39]

      • Indicated for prevention of opioid relapse after detoxification

        • Cannot be initiated until patients are fully detoxified without risking precipitated withdrawal

        • In general, requires about 7 days for short-acting opioids and 7 to 10 days for long-acting opioids (eg, methadone, buprenorphine) after last use ^[4]

        • Naloxone challenge (administration of short-acting naloxone or low-dose oral naltrexone followed by observation for signs or symptoms of withdrawal) can be used to determine patient is no longer physically opioid dependent

      • Can be prescribed in any setting by any clinician; requires no special regulations for facilities or prescribers

      • Consider for patients with mild opioid use disorder who have occupations not permitting opioid agonist treatment or when medication administration cannot be supervised ^[32]

        • Oral formula may be useful when adherence can be supervised or patient is highly motivated; extended-release injectable form may be preferred when issues with adherence are present ^[4]

      • Outcomes are often adversely affected by poor medication compliance ^[4]

        • Patients must remain abstinent from opioids for 7 to 10 days before initiation of extended-release naltrexone; therefore, this treatment can be difficult to initiate, resulting in increased risk of relapse ^[39]

        • Once initiated, extended-release naltrexone and buprenorphine, with or without naloxone, have been shown to be equally effective ^[39]

      • Adverse effects may include headache, insomnia, decreased energy or sedation, anxiety, nausea and vomiting, abdominal cramping or pain, cold symptoms, and joint or muscle pain

• Treatment settings, interventions, and services needed vary by type of drug used and individual patient characteristics (eg, severity of episode, response to treatments, interventions required, comorbidities, complication risks) ^[2]

  • Effective treatment addresses patient's multiple needs, not just their drug use disorder ^[40]

    • Includes associated medical, psychological, social, vocational, and legal problems; should also be appropriate to the person's age, sex, gender, ethnicity, and culture

  • Should be a shared decision that accommodates patient preference ^[34]

    • Consider patient's openness to and understanding of pharmacologic treatment, preferred treatment setting, past treatment experiences, and efficacy and safety of treatments

• Treatment needs to be readily available; longer delays between first contact, initial screening, and treatment result in fewer patients actually entering treatment ^[2][30]

  • Treatment ideally should be voluntary, but coercive treatment can sometimes be effective ^[40]

    • Enticements from family, work, or criminal justice system can increase treatment entry, retention, and potential success

  • Emergency or inpatient settings

    • To allow initiation of treatment of opioid use disorder as soon as possible, patients may be started on pharmacotherapy in emergency department and inpatient settings by practitioners without additional Drug Enforcement Administration waiver under certain conditions

      • Federal guideline on emergency narcotic addiction treatment (Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 1306.07 [b]) allows practitioners not specifically registered as narcotic treatment practitioners to administer (but not prescribe) narcotic drugs to relieve acute withdrawal symptoms while arranging for referral for treatment ^[41]

        • May not be carried out for more than 3 days (also referred to as the 72-hour rule); may not be renewed or extended

    • Provide plan for prompt follow-up in outpatient clinic or addiction treatment facility to continue initiation of medication for opioid use disorder, stabilization, and long-term maintenance

    • Inpatient initiation of medication for opioid use disorder is associated with a higher likelihood of short-term adherence to treatment after discharge ^[42]

• Different treatment programs or settings provide variety of intensity of clinical and environmental support services ^[4]

  • Offer various settings, staffing, support systems, therapies, assessments, documentation, and treatment plans

  • Determine level of care based on priority dimensions, diagnoses, and dose and intensity required

    • American Society of Addiction Medicine established 6 dimensions of multidimensional assessment ^[43]

      • Acute intoxication or withdrawal potential: past and current experiences of substance use and withdrawal

      • Biomedical conditions and complications: health history and current physical condition

      • Emotional, behavioral, or cognitive conditions and complications: thoughts, emotions, and mental health issues

      • Readiness for treatment

      • Relapse, continued use, or continued problem potential

      • Recovery or living environment: a person's recovery or living situation and surrounding people, places, and things

  • Settings include:

    • General outpatient location (eg, clinician's office or practice site)

      • Provide regularly scheduled sessions, usually fewer than 9 contact hours per week for adults ^[43]

      • When determining whether opioid treatment program or office-based opioid treatment is preferable, consider each person's psychosocial situation, co-occurring disorders, and chance for treatment retention versus risks of diversion

      • Information for locating practitioners authorized to treat opioid use disorder or opioid treatment programs can be found on Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's website ^[44]

    • Intensive outpatient program or partial hospitalization program

      • Typically located in specialty addiction treatment facility, community mental health center, or similar setting

      • Intensive outpatient programs typically provide 9 to 19 hours of structured programming per week for adults ^[43]

      • Partial hospitalization programs (day treatment) generally provide 20 or more hours of clinically intensive programming per week ^[43]

    • Residential addiction treatment facility or hospital

      • Organized treatment services featuring planned and structured care regimen in 24-hour residential setting ^[43]

• Opioid treatment programs

  • Federally approved programs certified by Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in conformance with Title 42 Code of Federal Regulations Part 8 ^[30]

    • Also referred to as methadone clinics; opioid medications administered or dispensed include methadone, a schedule II drug, as well as buprenorphine and naltrexone

    • Can also exist in other settings (eg, residential and hospital settings)

  • Patients with co-occurring alcohol or other substance use disorders (eg, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics) may best be treated in more supervised opioid treatment program setting to reduce risk of adverse events

  • Provide comprehensive, individually tailored program of medication therapy integrated with psychosocial and medical treatment and support services ^[30]

  • Although proven to decrease opioid use and related sequelae, capacity of opioid treatment programs has been unable to meet demands of increasing prevalence of opioid use disorder ^[11]

• Office-based opioid treatment

  • All clinicians with current Drug Enforcement Administration registration, including Schedule III authority, may prescribe buprenorphine for opioid use disorder if permitted by applicable state law ^[45]

  • Various models exist for providing medication for opioid use disorder in primary care settings in the United States. Key components include: ^[46]

    • Pharmacotherapy with buprenorphine or naltrexone

    • Integration of care

    • Psychosocial services, including peer support

    • Education and outreach

  • Advantages over specialized opioid treatment programs include greater accessibility and reduced stigma associated with obtaining treatment ^[32]

  • May not be suitable for patients with active alcohol, sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use disorder or heavy use of these substances

• Length of treatment

  • No predetermined time frame ^[4]

    • Remaining in treatment for an adequate period is critical ^[2]

      • Individuals progress at various rates; depends on type and degree of patient's problems and needs

      • Optimally determined as collaboration between patient and clinicians

      • Best outcomes occur with longer durations of treatment

    • However, research indicates that generally: ^[40]

      • For residential or outpatient setting, less than 90 days is of limited effectiveness and significantly longer times are recommended

      • For methadone maintenance, 12 months is considered minimum, with some people benefiting from years-long duration

Return to use

• Recovery from substance use disorder often requires multiple episodes of treatment ^[2]

• Involvement of peer recovery coaches can be effective

• Return to substance use can occur and treatment should be reinstated or adjusted ^[2]

• Inform patients of increased risk of overdose or potential death owing to decreased opioid tolerance if patient discontinues agonist (ie, methadone or buprenorphine) or antagonist (ie, naltrexone) therapy and resumes opioid use ^[4]

Prescribe or supply naloxone rescue kit with counseling on proper use to patients with opioid use disorder and their family members ^[4]

• Goal of naloxone administration is to reverse respiratory depression while avoiding precipitous withdrawal

• Effective dose is empiric ^[29]

  • Has short half-life; observe patient for 4 to 6 hours after respiratory rate has improved

Drug therapy

• Opioid agonists

  • Partial opioid agonists

    • Buprenorphine

      • Sublingual tablet

        • Conventional induction

          • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride Sublingual tablet; Adults: 2 to 4 mg SL as needed to achieve clinical effectiveness as rapidly as possible, then adjust dose by 2 to 4 mg to a level that holds the individual in treatment and suppresses opioid withdrawal signs and symptoms. Target dose: 16 mg SL once daily. Usual dose: 4 to 24 mg/day.

        • Low-dose induction

          • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride Sublingual tablet; Adults: 0.5 mg SL once daily on Day 1, then increase the dose by up to double daily to achieve clinical effectiveness. Usual dose: 12 to 16 mg/day in 1 to 3 divided doses; up to 24 mg/day has been used.

      • Subcutaneous

        • For initiation of treatment in patients not previously receiving a buprenorphine-containing product

          • Patients should receive an initial transmucosal buprenorphine dose to establish tolerability before first dose of either injectable product

          • Sublocade

            • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride Solution for injection, Extended Release; Adults: 300 mg subcutaneously once, then 300 mg subcutaneously as early as 1 week and up to 1 month after the initial dose based on individual need, and then 100 mg subcutaneously once monthly. May increase the maintenance dose to 300 mg/month based on clinical response and tolerability.

          • Brixadi for weekly use

            • Buprenorphine Solution for injection, Extended Release; Adults: 16 mg subcutaneously once, then 8 mg subcutaneously within 3 days of the first dose. May administer an additional 8 mg subcutaneously at least 24 hours after the previous injection as needed during Week 1. Base subsequent weekly injections on the total dosage established during Week 1. Adjust dose weekly as needed based on clinical response and tolerability. Max: 32 mg/week.

        • For patients already being treated with a buprenorphine-containing product

          • Sublocade

            • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride Solution for injection, Extended Release; Adults: 300 mg subcutaneously once, then 300 mg subcutaneously as early as 1 week and up to 1 month after the initial dose based on individual need, and then 100 mg subcutaneously once monthly. Individuals established on long-term treatment and whose symptoms are controlled with 8 to 18 mg/day of transmucosal buprenorphine may receive 100 mg as the second dose if symptoms remain controlled after the initial dose of 300 mg.

            • Patients on 8 mg/day or more of transmucosal buprenorphine may be transitioned directly to recommended starting dose

          • Brixadi

            • Buprenorphine Solution for injection, Extended Release; Adults: 8 mg subcutaneously once weekly for 6 mg/day or less SL; 16 mg subcutaneously once weekly or 64 mg subcutaneously once monthly for 8 to 10 mg/day SL; 24 mg subcutaneously once weekly or 96 mg subcutaneously once monthly for 12 to 16 mg/day SL; and 32 mg subcutaneously once weekly or 128 mg subcutaneously once monthly for 18 to 24 mg/day SL. May transition between weekly to monthly subcutaneous dosing based on clinical judgment.

    • Buprenorphine-naloxone

      • Sublingual film

        • Conventional induction

          • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride, Naloxone Hydrochloride Oral dissolving film; Adults: 2 mg buprenorphine; 0.5 mg naloxone or 4 mg buprenorphine; 1 mg naloxone SL every 2 hours as needed up to 8 mg buprenorphine; 2 mg naloxone on Day 1 based on the control of acute withdrawal symptoms, then up to 16 mg buprenorphine; 4 mg naloxone SL once daily on Day 2. Adjust dose by 2 mg buprenorphine; 0.5 mg naloxone or 4 mg buprenorphine; 1 mg naloxone to a level that holds the individual in treatment and suppresses opioid withdrawal signs and symptoms. Usual dose: 4 mg buprenorphine; 1 mg naloxone to 24 mg buprenorphine; 6 mg naloxone SL or buccally once daily. Buccal administration may be used during maintenance. Higher doses may be appropriate for some individuals.

        • Low-dose induction

          • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride, Naloxone Hydrochloride Oral dissolving film; Adults: 0.5 mg buprenorphine; 0.125 mg naloxone SL once daily on Day 1, then increase the dose by up to double daily to achieve clinical effectiveness. Usual dose: 12 mg buprenorphine; 3 mg naloxone/day to 16 mg buprenorphine; 4 mg naloxone/day in 1 to 3 divided doses; up to 24 mg buprenorphine; 6 mg naloxone has been used.

      • Sublingual tablet

        • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride, Naloxone Hydrochloride Sublingual tablet; Adults: 1.4 mg buprenorphine; 0.36 mg naloxone SL once, initially, then 1.4 mg buprenorphine; 0.36 naloxone or 2.8 mg buprenorphine; 0.72 mg naloxone every 1.5 to 2 hours as needed up to 5.7 mg buprenorphine; 1.4 mg naloxone on Day 1 based on the control of acute withdrawal symptoms, then up to 11.4 mg buprenorphine; 2.9 mg naloxone SL once daily on Day 2. Those with recent exposure to buprenorphine may tolerate up to 4.2 mg buprenorphine; 1.08 mg naloxone as a single, second dose on Day 1. Adjust dose by 2.9 mg buprenorphine; 0.71 mg naloxone or less to a level that holds the individual in treatment and suppresses opioid withdrawal signs and symptoms. Usual dose: 2.9 mg buprenorphine; 0.71 mg naloxone to 17.2 mg buprenorphine; 4.2 mg naloxone SL once daily. Higher doses may be appropriate for some individuals.

      • Buccal film

        • Buprenorphine Hydrochloride, Naloxone Hydrochloride Oral dissolving film; Adults: 2.1 mg buprenorphine; 0.3 mg naloxone buccally every 2 hours as needed up to 4.2 mg buprenorphine; 0.7 mg naloxone on Day 1 based on the control of acute withdrawal symptoms, then up to 8.4 mg buprenorphine; 1.4 mg naloxone buccally once daily on Day 2. Adjust dose by 2.1 mg buprenorphine; 0.3 mg naloxone to a level that holds the individual in treatment and suppresses opioid withdrawal signs and symptoms. Usual dose: 2.1 mg buprenorphine; 0.3 mg naloxone to 12.6 mg buprenorphine; 2.1 mg naloxone buccally once daily.

  • Full opioid agonist

    • Methadone

      • Methadone Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Adults: 20 to 30 mg PO once, initially; may administer an additional 5 to 10 mg after 2 to 4 hours if withdrawal symptoms have not been suppressed or if symptoms reappear, up to 40 mg/day on day 1. Use lower initial doses for persons whose tolerance is expected to be low at treatment entry. Adjust the dose over the first week of treatment based on control of withdrawal symptoms at 2 to 4 hours after dosing. Subsequently, titrate dose to a level that prevents opioid withdrawal symptoms for 24 hours, reduces drug hunger or craving, and blocks or attenuates the euphoric effects of self-administered opioids, ensuring tolerance to sedative effects. Usual dose range: 80 to 120 mg/day. During medically supervised withdrawal from methadone treatment, decrease dose by 10% every 10 to 14 days.

      • Liquid formulation is available and can be used in place of oral tablet

• Opioid antagonists

  • Naltrexone

    • For the treatment of opioid use disorder

      • Oral

        • Naltrexone Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Adults: 25 mg PO once daily, initially. Increase the dose to 50 mg PO once daily if no withdrawal signs occur.

      • Intramuscular

        • Naltrexone Suspension for injection, Extended Release; Adults: 380 mg IM every 4 weeks or once monthly.

  • Naloxone

    • For opioid overdose

      • Injection

        • Standard dose

          • Naloxone Hydrochloride Solution for injection; Adults: 0.4 to 2 mg IV/IM/subcutaneously every 2 to 3 minutes as needed up to a total dose of 10 mg.

        • Auto-injector

          • Naloxone Hydrochloride Solution for injection; Adults: 5 mg IM/subcutaneously every 2 to 3 minutes as needed.

      • Nasal

        • Naloxone Hydrochloride Nasal spray, solution; Adults: 3, 4, 8, or 10 mg (1 spray) intranasally every 2 to 3 minutes in alternating nostrils as needed.

Nondrug and supportive care

• Psychosocial interventions

  • Recommended, but not required, in conjunction with any pharmacologic treatment of opioid use disorder ^[4]

    • At minimum may include psychosocial needs assessment, peer counselor support, supportive counseling, links to existing family supports, and referrals to community services

    • Lack of availability or patient declining psychosocial therapy should not preclude or delay pharmacologic treatment

  • Help engage patient in treatment, provide incentive to remain abstinent, modify attitudes and behavior surrounding drug use, manage cravings, and increase skills to cope with emotional or social challenges and environmental cues that may trigger relapse ^[40]

  • Selecting psychosocial therapy appropriately targeted and individualized to suit patient needs is important

  • Optimal intervention(s) to use with medications in opioid use disorder is uncertain due to limited data ^[47]

    • Variety of formats are available, including: ^[47]

      • Cognitive behavioral therapy

        • Learning to recognize and stop negative patterns of thinking and behaving

      • Contingency management

        • Providing incentives to encourage or reinforce positive behaviors

      • Individual, group, and couple counseling

        • Includes behavioral therapy, commonly for substance use disorder treatment ^[40]

          • Behavioral therapies vary in focus

            • May include addressing patient's motivation to change, providing incentives for abstinence, building skills to resist drug use, replacing drug-using activities with constructive and rewarding activities, improving problem-solving skills, and facilitating better interpersonal relationships ^[40]

          • Participation in group therapy and other peer-support programs during and after treatment can help maintain abstinence

          • Regular meetings with peer support or community health worker

      • Mutual help programs

        • Include 12-step programs (eg, Narcotics Anonymous, Alcoholics Anonymous, Methadone Anonymous)

          • Other groups include Self-Management and Recovery Therapy, Women for Sobriety, and Secular Organization for Sobriety groups, among many others

        • May provide positive reinforcement and motivation and social support from other members during and after active treatment ^[30]

      • Motivational interviewing

        • Building motivation or commitment to engaging in treatment and recovery process

      • Social skills training

      • Family therapy

  • Return to use prevention strategies are an important part of an addiction-treatment plan; opioid use disorder is a chronic, relapsing disease ^[4]

    • May involve drug counseling and/or other psychosocial treatments; involvement of patient's social network (eg, family, friends, clergy, employers) may provide strong support systems ^[7]

  • Psychiatric treatment may be needed to manage psychiatric comorbidities that complicate addictive disorder or act as trigger ^[2]

• Education or harm reduction

  • Provide targeted risk-reduction counseling for infectious diseases (eg, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, tuberculosis) and link patients to treatment if necessary ^[2]

  • Offer contraceptive counseling to age-appropriate female patients in treatment of substance use disorder to minimize risk of unplanned pregnancy ^[26]

  • Safe injection information to help reduce hazards of injection can include:

    • Self-administering small test dose to test potency before administering entire dose of drug of unknown potency ^[48]

    • Proper skin cleaning before injection ^[48]

    • Using fentanyl test strips

    • Using clean or new needles and avoiding reuse of needles or sharing needles ^[48]

      • Refer to syringe exchange program if available ^[49]

  • Medication interactions ^[32]

    • Concurrent use of alcohol, benzodiazepines, muscle relaxants, pregabalin, or gabapentin with methadone or buprenorphine can increase risk of sedation, respiratory depression, and death

      • However, do not withhold treatment with methadone or buprenorphine due to use of benzodiazepines and other sedative-hypnotics ^[4]

    • Naltrexone should not be used concurrently with opioids

• Offer hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccination, if appropriate ^[4]

Comorbidities

• Viral (eg, HIV, hepatitis C) and bacterial infections ^[1]

  • Most common with use of drugs by injection

• Other substance use disorders (eg, tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, benzodiazepines, stimulants) ^[1]

  • May be taken to manage symptoms of withdrawal and craving or enhance opioid effects

  • Concomitant use of alcohol, sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics with opioids may contribute to respiratory depression

• Coexisting psychiatric disorders, including: ^[1][4]

  • Depression

    • May be opioid induced, or opioid use may exacerbate preexisting primary depressive disorder

  • Anxiety

  • Posttraumatic stress disorder

  • Personality disorders

Special populations

• Pregnant patients

  • Opioid use in pregnancy has increased in parallel with epidemic in general population ^[26]

    • Pregnant people with opioid use disorder are more likely to seek prenatal care late in pregnancy, miss appointments, and experience poor weight gain

  • Complications of untreated opioid use disorder specific to pregnancy include miscarriage, preterm labor and delivery, intrauterine growth restriction, and neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome ^[50]

    • Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome is an expected and treatable drug withdrawal syndrome experienced by neonates shortly after birth resulting from chronic maternal opioid use during pregnancy; occurs in 30% to 80% of infants born to mothers taking opioid agonist therapies ^[26][51]

      • Characterized by disturbances in neonate's gastrointestinal, autonomic, and central nervous systems (eg, irritability, high-pitched cry, tremors, poor feeding, regurgitation, loose stools, sweating, yawning, sneezing) ^[51]

      • Dosage of methadone or buprenorphine does not have consistent effect on incidence or severity of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome ^[50]

  • SBIRT (screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment) is recommended in early obstetric care to improve maternal and infant outcomes ^[26][52]

    • Validated screening tools include 4Ps, NIDA Quick Screen (National Institute on Drug Abuse), and CRAFFT (for pregnant patients aged 26 years or younger) ^[53]

    • Practitioners should be aware of state laws surrounding substance use screening and reporting ^[54]

      • Policies that dissuade people from seeking prenatal care are contrary to welfare of mother and fetus ^[54]

  • Some elements of prenatal care may require modification (eg, testing for sexually transmitted infections, additional ultrasonography examinations) based on patient's particular clinical needs ^[26]

  • Care should be comanaged by an obstetrician and an addiction medicine specialist ^[4]

    • Other consultation with specialists may be required according to individual patient's needs (eg, anesthesiologist, pediatrician, pain management specialist, maternal-fetal medicine specialist, nutritionist, behavioral health specialist, social services specialist)

    • By federal law, to coordinate care among health care practitioners, written patient consent regarding addiction treatment must be obtained ^[55]

  • Treatment with opioid agonist pharmacotherapy is recommended for pregnant patients with opioid use disorder in addition to counseling and behavioral therapy ^[26]

    • Medications include methadone and buprenorphine; benefits and disadvantages exist for both and choice should be individualized ^[50]

      • Methadone ^[26]

        • Associated with higher retention rate ^[50]

        • Managed by addiction treatment specialists within registered opioid treatment program in communication with obstetric team

        • With advancing gestation, often requires increased or split dosing to maintain adequate levels

      • Buprenorphine

        • Buprenorphine can be used either as monotherapy or in combination with naloxone. If a person is already on buprenorphine or naloxone, no change in therapy needs to be made ^[26][50]

        • Compared with methadone, evidence suggests lower risk of preterm birth, greater birth weight, and larger head circumference with buprenorphine treatment; neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome may be less severe and require shorter hospital stays ^[56][57]

        • Typically requires fewer dosing adjustments during pregnancy than methadone, but dose may need to be increased in third trimester

    • Data on safety and efficacy of naltrexone in pregnancy are limited ^[26][50]

  • Infants born to mothers using opioids during pregnancy should be monitored in hospital for neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, typically for 4 to 7 days ^[26][50]

    • Opioids are recommended as a first line drug for neonates with neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome ^[51]

  • Encourage breastfeeding for mothers who are stable on opioid agonists, are not using nonprescribed drugs for recreational use, and have no other contraindications (eg, HIV) ^[26]

    • Associated with less severe neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, less need for pharmacotherapy, and shorter infant hospital stay

  • Consider providing prescription for naloxone for emergency administration in case of life-threatening opioid overdose ^[26]

    • Not recommended for use in pregnant patients, because it may precipitate preterm labor or fetal distress; however, risk of maternal death from overdose outweighs fetal risks

  • Vaccination for hepatitis A and hepatitis B is recommended if serology test result is negative ^[4]

• Adolescents

  • During adolescence (approximately age 12 years to early 20s), neurodevelopmental molding and maturation confer greater vulnerability to addictions; in addition, risk-taking behaviors are generally more prevalent ^[58]

    • Age at first substance use is inversely correlated with lifetime incidence of developing a substance use disorder

  • Progression of use from oral opioids to injection is more prominent in adolescents than in adults who use opioids; accelerates faster with earlier age of first opioid use ^[12]

    • Tolerance to opioids happens rapidly in adolescents; fentanyl's lower cost and higher potency make it appealing as addiction increases

  • Signs of opioid use disorder in younger patients may manifest as failing grades, breaking curfew, and legal involvement

    • Other associated features may include changing peer groups, isolation from family or friends, decreased social and leisure activities, mood changes (eg, depression, irritability, anger), and problematic behaviors (eg, truancy, running away, stealing, lying) ^[12]

  • Treatment in specialized facilities providing multidimensional services may be beneficial for adolescents

    • Many unique medical, legal, and ethical dilemmas may complicate treatment

  • Full range of treatment options (including methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone) can be considered in treatment of opioid use disorder in adolescents; most efficacy studies have been conducted in adults ^[4][31][59]

    • Methadone is not easily available for patients younger than 18 years ^[12]

    • Buprenorphine is FDA approved for adolescents aged 16 years or older

    • Naltrexone may be considered for young adults aged 18 years and older

• Patients with co-occurring psychiatric disorders ^[4]

  • Common among people with opioid use disorder

    • Higher prevalence of substance use in those with psychiatric disorders than in general population

    • Evaluation for presence of commonly associated disorders, including depression, anxiety, personality disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder, should be obtained at onset of treatment

  • Ask patients with psychiatric disorders about suicidal ideation and behavior

    • Management of patients with suicide risk includes immediate risk reduction, managing underlying factors associated with suicidal intent, and careful monitoring and follow-up

  • Consider pharmacotherapy in conjunction with psychosocial treatment for patients with opioid use disorder and co-occurring psychiatric disorder

    • Practitioners should have knowledge of potential interactions between medications used to treat opioid use disorder and co-occurring psychiatric disorders

    • Obtain reassessment using a detailed mental status examination after stabilization with methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone

• Patients with pain ^[4]

  • Acute and chronic pain are common among patients with opioid use disorder

  • Accurate diagnosis of cause of pain is important, so choice of suitable treatment can be made

    • Nonpharmacologic treatments may be effective (eg, physical therapy, exercise, tai chi)

    • Pharmacologic treatments to consider include:

      • Nonnarcotic medications (eg, NSAIDs, acetaminophen) should be tried initially

      • Adjunctive medications may include anticonvulsants, tricyclic antidepressants, or combined norepinephrine-serotonin reuptake inhibitors

  • Pain management is variable depending on whether patient is in treatment of opioid use disorder

    • Patients with untreated and active opioid use disorder

      • Both methadone and buprenorphine have analgesic effects and may be considered, but need to be dosed several times a day for analgesia

    • Patients in treatment of opioid use disorder with opioid agonists

      • Patients on methadone with severe, acute pain require doses of opioids in addition to their regular daily dose of methadone

        • Those on methadone with chronic pain should be managed in coordination with a pain specialist

      • Patients on buprenorphine

        • For mild acute pain: may require temporarily increasing buprenorphine dosing and dividing dose

        • For severe acute pain: can continue buprenorphine and add full opioid agonist, or temporarily discontinue buprenorphine and start high potency opioid with close monitoring is suggested

        • Buprenorphine is often adequate for chronic pain control in patients with opioid use disorder; consider splitting doses

    • Patients in treatment of opioid use disorder with opioid antagonist (naltrexone)

      • Will not respond to opioid analgesics in usual manner

      • Emergency pain control options include regional anesthesia, conscious sedation with benzodiazepines or ketamine, and general anesthesia using nonopioids

• People in the criminal justice system ^[4]

  • Substantial proportion of people in the criminal justice system (eg, prisons, jails, drug courts, probation, parole) have opioid use disorder and associated problems

    • Screening for opioid use disorder and initiation or continuation of medication for opioid use disorder is recommended

  • Offer pharmacotherapy (ie, methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone), in addition to psychosocial treatment; people should not be forced to undergo opioid withdrawal

    • Patients should be stabilized on pharmacotherapy before release from prison and continue treatment after their release with community treatment practitioners established in advance

      • Discharge from prison is often associated with opioid overdose and death. Prescribe naloxone for emergency treatment of overdose

Monitoring

• Patients should be monitored because returns to use during treatment do occur ^[40]

  • May provide incentive to maintain abstinence, as well as early indications of return to use, and allow for individual treatment plan modification

  • Methadone treatment is monitored through certified opioid treatment programs and involves the following:

    • Testing for substance use and monitoring for return to use

    • Testing for methadone to ensure adherence and detect potential diversion

  • Buprenorphine and naltrexone treatment requires monitoring, especially in early treatment ^[4]

    • Weekly office or telemedicine visits recommended until patients are stable

      • Stable patients can be seen less often

      • Stability can be determined by the following factors:

        • Participation in psychosocial treatment and other recovery-associated activities

        • Good occupational and social functioning

        • Abstinence from nonprescribed drugs

    • Typically involves urine drug testing for buprenorphine or buprenorphine metabolites and other substances; other reliable test for presence of drugs may be used ^[4]

    • Reviewing state prescription drug monitoring program for other prescribed medication may be useful

• Frequency of urine drug testing is determined by various factors, including stability of patient, type of treatment, and treatment setting ^[4]

  • More frequent testing may be required in early treatment or during episodes of relapse

  • Monthly testing is common for patients in office-based practice with buprenorphine; federal law mandates at least 8 drug tests per year for patients in opioid treatment programs

  • Periodic definitive or confirmatory testing of negative immunoassay test results for specific drugs or metabolites is warranted

• Treatment and service plans must be continually assessed and modified as necessary to ensure individual needs are met ^[2]

  • In addition to counseling or psychotherapy, patient may require medication, medical services, family therapy, parenting instruction, vocational rehabilitation, and/or social and legal services

• Diversion potential exists for buprenorphine with or without naloxone. Strategies to reduce diversion include: ^[4]

  • Frequent office visits

  • Urine drug testing for buprenorphine and metabolites

• Monitor patients on methadone for QTc prolongation

  • Patients with a QTc interval of 451 to 499 milliseconds should be monitored more frequently; discuss the risks versus benefits of treatment ^[60]

  • Patients with a QTc interval of 500 milliseconds or greater should receive intervention to lower cardiac risk either by discontinuing or lowering the methadone dose or by eliminating contributing factors

Complications and Prognosis

Complications

• Social or family disruption and lost productivity ^[61]

  • Criminal justice involvement, school dropout, and unemployment ^[12]

• Depression ^[1]

  • Common during chronic intoxication or in association with physical or psychosocial stressors related to opioid use

• Insomnia, especially during withdrawal ^[1]

• Overdose

• Injection complications ^[1][10]

  • Hepatitis and HIV (hepatitis C can occur in up to 90% of people with opioid use disorder) ^[1]

  • Cellulitis and abscesses

  • Bacterial endocarditis

  • Tuberculosis

  • Peripheral edema secondary to sclerosed veins

• Risky behaviors (eg, unprotected sexual contact) can lead to contracting infectious diseases (eg, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis)

• Sniffing heroin, fentanyl, or cocaine can result in irritation of nasal mucosa, potentially resulting in perforation of nasal septum

• Constipation from slowing of gastrointestinal activity and gut motility ^[1]

• Sexual dysfunction ^[1]

  • Erectile dysfunction in males

  • Altered reproductive function and irregular menses in females

• Hyperalgesia ^[62]

  • Evidence suggests chronic opioid use may lead to hyperalgesia, a state of nociceptive sensitization caused by opioid exposure

  • A paradoxical response; patient taking opioids for treatment of pain could become more sensitive to certain painful stimuli

Prognosis

• Opioid use disorder typically continues over many years once established, though brief periods of abstinence are common ^[1]

  • Patients generally require long-term or repeated episodes of care to achieve sustained abstinence and recovery ^[40]

  • Short-term treatment programs focused on abstinence are associated with high relapse rates ^[26]

    • Longer treatment is associated with a greater likelihood of abstinence ^[3]

• Stable long-term remission is possible with appropriate treatment and follow-up

  • Maintaining opioid abstinence for at least 5 years substantially increases likelihood of future stable abstinence ^[3]

• In treated patients, return to use after abstinence is not uncommon ^[1]

  • Factors that contribute to return to use include:

    • Development of conditioned responses to drug-related stimuli (eg, craving to seeing any powdery substance) ^[1]

    • Comorbid psychiatric disorders and history of abuse (physical or sexual) are associated with persistent opioid use; social or family support and employment facilitate recovery ^[3]

  • Associated with increased risk of accidental overdose from loss of tolerance

• Acute opioid withdrawal is not typically life-threatening; however:

  • Patients with comorbid conditions (eg, type 1 diabetes, congestive heart failure, coronary artery disease, liver failure, epilepsy) have increased risk of death

  • Symptoms of withdrawal may lead to behaviors (eg, crime, foregoing needed medical treatments) that increase risk of morbidity and mortality

• Mortality ^[61]

  • Opioid use is associated with increased mortality

    • Long-term mortality rate of people addicted to opioids is approximately 6 to 20 times higher than that of the general population ^[3]

  • Treatment of opioid use disorder with methadone or buprenorphine is associated with lower rates of all-cause mortality, suicide, and drug-related mortality ^[63]

  • Leading causes of death in people using opioids for nonmedical purposes are overdose and trauma ^[61]

    • Overdose

      • Opioids accounted for about 55,000 overdose deaths in 2024, with increases across age groups, racial or ethnic groups, urbanization levels, and multiple states, according to CDC ^[5]

      • Opioid overdose may be accidental or deliberate (clinically distinct problems), but differentiating them is difficult

      • Fatal overdoses due to synthetic opioids (usually fentanyl) outnumber those due to prescribed opioids ^[1]

  • Associated with increased risk for completed suicides and suicide attempts ^[1]

  • Mortality rate owing to infection (eg, cellulitis, HIV, hepatitis, endocarditis) up to 1.5% to 2% per year ^[1]

Screening and Prevention

Screening

At-risk populations

• US Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening by asking questions about unhealthy drug use in adults aged 18 years or older, including pregnant patients; evidence was insufficient to assess balance of benefits and harms of screening adolescents aged 12 to 17 years ^[64]

• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration recommends SBIRT as part of routine health care ^[58]

• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends universal screening of pregnant patients for substance use; maternal and infant outcomes are improved with universal screening, intervention, and treatment referral ^[26]

  • Pregnancy provides opportunity to identify and treat people with substance use disorders

  • Screening should be done, in partnership with pregnant patient, at first prenatal visit ^[26]

  • Screening tools for prenatal substance abuse include NIDA Quick Screen, CRAFFT (for patients aged 26 years or younger), and 4Ps ^[26]

• American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that pediatricians incorporate universal SBIRT practices into medical care standards for adolescents ^[58]

• Practitioners should educate themselves on state and federal laws surrounding substance use screening and reporting before applying universal screening protocols ^[50]

  • Mandatory reporting of substance use may be required in some states

Screening tests

• Screening is not a full assessment; patients with problem identified on screening or through discussion with patient require referral for a thorough assessment ^[2]

• SBIRT

  • Evidence-based practice used to identify, reduce, and prevent problematic use, abuse, and dependence on alcohol and nonprescribed drugs for recreational use; useful in any health care setting (eg, emergency departments, primary care centers, office or clinic practices, other community settings) ^[52]

    • Screening: use standardized screening tools to assess patient for risky substance use behaviors

    • Brief intervention: engage patient in short conversation, providing feedback and advice

    • Referral to treatment: provide referral for brief therapy or additional treatment, if necessary

• Many screening tools are available, for example:

  • SOAPP-R (Revised Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain) ^[65]

    • Devised as a screening tool for patients with chronic pain before initiation of opioid therapy; found to correlate well with opioid use disorder in emergency department setting ^[16]

  • NIDA Quick Screen ^[2]

    • First, ask about patient's (aged 18 years or older) drug use during the past year ^[66]

    • If patient affirms use of illegal or prescription drugs for nonmedical reasons, begin NIDA-modified ASSIST (Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Screening Test); determine risk level

  • CRAFFT

    • Screening tool validated for adolescents aged 12 to 18 years; 2 or more positive responses indicate need for further assessment ^[67]

      • Have you ever ridden in a CAR driven by someone (including yourself) who was high or had been using alcohol or drugs?

      • Do you ever use alcohol or drugs to RELAX, feel better about yourself, or fit in?

      • Do you ever use alcohol or drugs while you are by yourself, or ALONE?

      • Do you ever FORGET things you did while using alcohol or drugs?

      • Do your FAMILY or FRIENDS ever tell you that you should cut down on your drinking or drug use?

      • Have you ever gotten into TROUBLE while you were using alcohol or drugs?

  • 4Ps ^[26]

    • Screening tool for pregnant patients; any affirmative answer should prompt further questions

      • Parents: did any of your parents have a problem with alcohol or other drug use?

      • Partner: does your partner have a problem with alcohol or drug use?

      • Past: in the past, have you had difficulties in your life because of alcohol or other drugs, including prescription medications?

      • Present: in the past month, have you drunk any alcohol or used other drugs?

• In combination with self-reported data, a review of state prescription drug monitoring program may provide objective data for consideration; used alone, does not assess risk for opioid use disorder ^[16]

Prevention

• Guidelines from American College of Physicians and American Academy of Family Physicians recommend to encourage use of nonopioid analgesics to treat pain when appropriate ^[68][69][70]

  • Practitioner prescribing may be important driver of opioid use disorder, dependence, and overdose

• Guidelines are available for prescribing opioids for chronic pain (defined as pain for 3 months or longer, excluding cancer, palliative, and end-of-life care)

  • CDC guidelines provide recommendations for primary care clinicians prescribing opioids for chronic pain (outside active cancer treatment, palliative care, end-of-life care) ^[71]

  • American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians has developed guidelines to improve pain and function in chronic noncancer pain on a long-term basis ^[72]

• Prescription drug monitoring programs ^[8][73]

  • State-level intervention intended to improve opioid prescribing, inform clinical practice, and protect patients at risk

• Education

  • Opioid Overdose Prevention Toolkit is available from Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ^[74]

    • Provides strategies to health care practitioners, communities, and local governments for developing practices and policies to help prevent opioid-related overdoses and deaths

  • Provide adolescents with clear and consistent education about abstaining from substance use, because this is a critical period ^[58]

  • US Preventive Services Task Force finds insufficient evidence to make any recommendation regarding primary care–based behavioral counseling interventions to prevent nonprescribed drugs for recreational use in children, adolescents, and young adults aged up to 25 years ^[75]