
Human Information Processing
An Introduction to Psychology
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Human Information Processing: An Introduction to Psychology, Second Edition, was written to reflect recent developments, as well as anticipate new directions, in this flourishing field. The ideas of human information processing are relevant to all human activities, most especially those of human interactions. The book discusses all the traditional areas and then goes beyond: consciousness, states of awareness, multiple levels of processing (and of awareness), interpersonal communication, emotion, and stress. The book begins with an introduction to some of the more interesting phenomena of perception and poses some of the puzzles faced by those who would attempt to unravel the structures. Separate chapters cover the systems of most interest for human communication: the visual system and the auditory system; the structure of the nervous system; and the systems of memory: sensory information storage, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Subsequent chapters deal with the different aspects of memory, including show how memory is used in thought, in language, and in decision making. Also examined are the neurological basis of memory and the representation of knowledge within memory.
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Human Perception
Preview
Interpreting Sensory Messages
Matching Templates
Data-Driven and Conceptually Driven Processing
Some Perceptual Phenomena
Organizing Degraded Images
Competing Organizations
Organization without Meaning
Making the Data Fit the Conceptualization
The Importance of Rules
Perception of Space
The Importance of Context
Feature Analysis
Stopping the Image
Aftereffects
The Explanation of Aftereffects
Orientation-Specific Color Adaptation
Perception without Features
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Perception
Art
2. The Visual System
Preview
Light
Decibels
The Optical Path
The Pupil
The Lens
The Retina
Chemical Responses to Light
The Photochemical Reaction
The Neuroanatomy of Vision
The Retinal Network
The Pathway to the Brain
Sampling Visual Information
Eye Movements
The Localizing Channel
Vision without a Visual Cortex
Vision without a Superior Colliculus
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
3. The Dimensions of Vision
Preview
Sensory Experiences
The Perception of Brightness
Brightness Contrast
Mach Bands
Spatial Frequency Analysis
The Measurement of Visual Sensitivity
Equibrightness Contours
Temporal Characteristics of Vision
Integration Time
When Flashing Lights Become Continuous
Critical Flicker
Colors
The Color Circle
Making Paints Mix as Lights
Color Sensitivity of Cones
Induced Contrast
Opponent Process Color Theory
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Color Vision
Spatial Frequency Analysis
4. The Auditory System
Preview
The Ear
The Physics of Sound
The Frequency of Sound
The Intensity of Sound
The Mechanics of the Ear
The Inner Ear
Movements of the Basilar Membrane
The Hair Cells
Electrical Responses to Sound
Tuning Curves
Temporal Coding in Neural Responses
Coding of Intensity Information
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
5. The Dimensions of Sound
Preview
Sensory Experiences
Loudness
Equiloudness Contours
Listening To Music
Masking
The Measurement Of Loudness
Pitch
The Musical Scale
The Mel Scale
Place Theory: Position on the Basilar Membrane
Periodicity Pitch
Masking the Missing Fundamental
Evidence against the Periodicity Pitch Theory
The Duplicity Theory of Pitch Perception
The Critical Band
Auditory Space Perception
Localization
Importance Of Binaural Listening
The Precedence Effect
Recordings
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
6. Neural Information Processing
Preview
Part I: Neural Processes
The Eye of a Frog
Physiological Procedures
Basic Neural Circuits
Lateral Inhibition
Responding to Movement
Part II: Brain Processes
From the Eye to the Brain
Extracting Features
Acoustic Information Processing
What Next?
Conclusion
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
7. Pattern Recognition and Attention
Preview
Recognizing Patterns
Pandemonium
How to Build Pandemoniums
Features for Recognizing Speech
The Segmentation Problem
Classifying Speech Sounds
Feature Analysis is Not Sufficient
A Matter of Context
The Importance of Redundancy
Data-Driven and Conceptually Driven Processing
Specialist Demons
The Blackboard and the Supervisor
The Analysis of a Sentence
On the Power and Weakness of the Specialist System
The Phenomena of Attention
Selecting Messages
Processing the Rejected Message
Specialist Demons and the Supervisor
Conclusion
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
8. The Memory Systems
Preview
The Storage Systems
Sensory Information Storage System
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Sensory Information Storage
The Capacity of SIS
Short-Term Memory
Errors in Recall From Short-Term Memory
Rehearsal
Forgetting
Attributes of Memory
Selective Interference: A Useful Experimental Tool
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
9. Using Memory
Preview
From Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory
Learning Lists
Memory and Attention
Memory without Attention
Integrative Processes
The Need for Organization
Depth of Processing
Strategies for Remembering
Mnemonics
The Study of Long-Term Memory
Answering Questions
Retrieving an Image
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
10. The Representation of Knowledge
Preview
Representing Information in Memory
The Structure of Concepts
Semantic Definitions
Semantic Networks
Sensory Images and Motor Control Images
Primary and Secondary Concepts
Remembering Events
Episodic and Semantic Memory
Using the Data Base
Prototypes
Mental Images
An Experiment on Images
A Final Comment
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
11. The Neural Basis of Memory
Preview
Storing Information
Neural Circuits of Memory
Disorders of Memory
Electroconvulsive Shock
Amnesias
The Cases of H.M. and N.A.
Other Studies of Amnesia
Localization of Brain Function
Specialization of the Two Hemispheres of the Brain
Split Brains in Animals
Hemispheric Specialization in Humans
Two Brains: Fixed or Flexible
Specialized Hemispheres—Specialized Thought
Conclusion
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
General
Memory Mechanisms
Memory Deficits
Hemispheric Specialization
12. Language
Preview
Language and Communication
Conversational Postulates
Communicating Knowledge Structures
The Rules of Language
English Grammar
The Problem of Reference
The Power of Words
Words and Morphemes
Lexical Decomposition
Psychological Mechanisms of Language Understanding
Understanding Sentences
A System for Understanding Language
Demons
Understanding a Particular Sentence
Garden Path Sentences
Summary
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
13. Learning and Cognitive Development
Preview
Cognitive Learning
Laws of Learning
Learned Helplessness
Reinforcement as a Signal
Learning and Awareness
Cognitive Development
Learning by Experimentation
The Importance of Expectations
Sensorimotor Learning
Preoperational Thought
Concrete Operations
Formal Operations
Thinking
Learning a Language
Learning the Vocabulary
The Problem Faced by the Child
Learning Words
Overgeneralization and Overdiscrimination
Learning to Speak
Imitation
Language as Communication
Performance Limits
Learning as Additions to Knowledge
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
General Issues in Learning
Development
First Language Learning
Learning Complex Topics
14. Problem Solving and Decision Making
Preview
The Anatomy of the Problem
Protocols
The Procotol From Donald + Gerald
The Problem Behavior Graph
Strategies of Problem Solving
Searching for Solutions
Selecting Operators
Limitations of Protocol Analysis
How Good is Human Problem Solving?
Limits Imposed by Short-term Memory
Overcoming the Limits
Decision Making
Determining Values
The Psychological Value of Money
The Value of Complex Alternatives
What is Being Optimized?
Risky Decision Making
Utility in Risky Choices
Probability
Expected Value
Subjective Probability
Representativeness and Availability
Conclusion
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Problem Solving
Decision Making
15. The Mechanisms of Thought
Preview
Thinking
Conscious and Subconscious Modes of Thought
Subconscious Problem Solving
Some Principles of Processing
The Processor
Memory
The Trade-off Between Memory and Processing
Day-Arithmetic
Time Sharing and Multiple Processors
Human Thought Mechanisms
Dual Processing Units in the Human
Meditation
The Meddlesome Nature of S
The Virtues of S
States of Awareness
The Analysis of Human Thought
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
16. Social Interactions
Preview
Prototypes and Schemas
Social Stereotypes
Being Sane in Insane Places
Attribution Theory
Attributing the Cause of Another's Behavior
Attributing the Causes of Our Own Behavior
Forming Impressions
Information Integration
Order Effects
Patterns of Social Interaction
Stereotyped Patterns of Interaction
I'm Information Processing, You're Information Processing
Scripts
The Processes of Social Influence
Bystander Behavior
Bystander Apathy
Conformity
Compliance
Interactive Decisions
Bargaining
The Bargaining Procedure
The Process of Negotiation
Summary
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
17. Stress and Emotion
Preview
Stress
How to Produce Stress
Cognitive Causes of Stress
Performance Under Stress
Interpreting Emotional Arousal
Emotions: One or Many?
Interpreting Emotions Through Context
A Model of Emotional Arousal
Review of Terms and Concepts
Suggested Readings
Appendix A. Measuring Psychological Variables
Scaling
Scale Types
Scaling Techniques
Magnitude Estimation
The Power Law
"How Much" versus "What Kind"
Interpretation of the Power Function
Range of Applicability
Cross-Modality Matching
How to Scale
Suggested Readings
Appendix B. Operating Characteristics
The Decision Problem
The Dice Game
The Criterion Rule
Confidence Ratings
The Normal Distribution
Problems
The Fire Sprinkler Problem
Memory
The Dice Game Revisited
Suggested Readings
Bibliography
Using Basic Reference Material
Annual Reviews
Psychological Abstracts
The Science Citation Index
The Journals
General Readings
References
Author Index
Subject Index
Product details
- No. of pages: 802
- Language: English
- Copyright: © Academic Press 1977
- Published: January 1, 1977
- Imprint: Academic Press
- eBook ISBN: 9781483258232