The Nature of Metals

Introduction1 The Metals Which Chemical Elements Are Metals? The Periodic Table A Bit of History Some Interesting Relationships The Rare Earths The Lanthanide Series The Actinide Series2 Looking Inside the Metals The Microscope How Etching Reveals Structure The Removal of Metal by Etching Reagents Grain Boundaries Under the Microscope A Coin of Tiberius Caesar The Electron Microscope3 How Atoms Are Arrmged in Metals Metallic Crystals Formed by Freezing What X-rays Yield How the Powder Pattern Is Obtained A Simple Way of Describing an Arrangement of Atoms Two Additional Simple Arrangements Patterns of Complex Structures The Sizes of Atoms Space Lattices Planes That Reflect X-rays The Naming of Planes Some General Comments4 Alloys Solubility of Metals in Each Other How Atoms Are Arranged in Solid Solutions Constitutional Diagrams How Copper-Nickel Alloys Solidify How Alloys May Be Made Homogeneous5 More About Alloys Tin-Lead Alloys The 8% Tin Alloy The Law of Levers The 45% Tin Alloy The Melting Process Factors That Influence Alloying—Atomic Diameter Factors That Influence Alloying-Chemical Properties Some General Remarks on Diagrams6 Solidification Crystals Grow in Particular Directions Flow of Heat Influences Crystal Growth Effect of Rapid Cooling on Alloys The Correction of Nonuniformity of Composition Single Crystals7 Movement of Atoms in Solid Metals An Example of the Movement of Atoms Movement of Copper Atoms in Aluminum Diffusion Homogenizes Alloys Relative Rates of Diffusion The Mechanism of Diffusion Diffusion of a Metal's Own Atoms (Self-Diffusion) Diffusion in Interstitial Solid Solutions Diffusion of Carbon in Iron Gases Can Diffuse Through Metals Chemical Character Influences Rate of Diffusion8 Some Effects of Atomic Movements Significance of Lines DF and EG in the Lead-Tin Diagram The Rejected Tin Effect of Rate of Cooling on Precipitation of Tin Changing Solid Solubility—The Solvus Line The Practical Use of Changes in Solubility-Age Hardening An Age-Hardening Aluminum Alloy The Effect of Temperature on the Hardening Behavior The Mechanism of Age Hardening A Third Element Influences Age Hardening General Comments on Age Hardening9 Iron, Steel, and the A3 Transformation Iron Changes the Arrangement of Its Atoms The A3 Transformation Change in Dimensions The Heat Effect Change in Magnetic Properties Other Changes What Carbon Does The Iron-Carbon Diagram Cooling Through the Transformation Range How the Transformation Ends The Transformation in Higher Carbon Steels10 The Hardening of Steel The Hardening Transformation The Isothermal Transformation Curve Transformation to Martensite Depends on Temperature Only Effect of Carbon on the Martensite Range Effect of Rate of Cooling Bainite The Quenching of Large Bars Hardenability Tempering The Importance of the Iron-Carbon Alloys11 Alloy Diagrams Atomic Percentages A Peritectic Situation Effect of Fast Cooling Peritectic Reaction May Not Yield a Compound Two Ways of Forming Compounds The Monotectic Reaction Allotropie Transformations Complicate Alloy Diagrams How Transformations Alter Diagrams The Iron-Chromium Diagram12 Special Arrangements of Atoms Peculiar Behavior in the Copper-Gold Alloys The Constitutional Diagram of the Copper-Gold Alloys Ordering in the 50 Atomic Per Cent Alloys The X-ray Powder Pattern of the 50 a/o Alloy The Second Form of Ordered 50 a/o Alloy Ordering in the 25 a/o Gold Alloy Change in Resistivity of the 25 a/o Gold Alloy Mechanical Changes Related to Ordering in the 25 a/o Alloy Ordering in Other Alloys Ordering of a Different Kind13 How Metals Are Deformed Relative Slip The Plane of Slip The Weakness of Single Crystals Degree of Slip and Ease of Slip Deformation by Twinning Twins in a Body-Centered Cubic Metal Deformation in Industrial Metals The Mechanism of Extremely Slow Deformation14 Recrystallization Meaning of Recrystallization Growth of Grains Conditions for Recrystallization Temperature Factor Prior Grain Size Alloying Affects Recrystallization The Degree of Deformation Recrystallization Softens Preferred Orientation The Texture of Cold-Rolled Copper Changes Without Recrystallization—Recovery The Formation of Subgrains15 Some New Concepts Concerning Metals Ideas About Vacant Atom Sites Evidence for the Existence of Vacancies The Diffusion of Quenched-in Vacancies Deformation Makes Diffusion of Vacancies Easier A Peculiar Defect in Metals A Simple Dislocation Edge Dislocations—The Dislocation Line Screw Dislocations Burgers Circuit and Burgers Vector Dislocations and Slip in Crystals The Experimental Evidence for Dislocations16 Metals in Nuclear Reactors Uranium Thorium Plutonium The Capacity of Metals for Capturing Neutrons The Need for Control Rods How Radiation Affects Reactor MaterialsAppendix: Terms in Alloy DiagramsGlossaryIndex