Ocean Circulation and Climate, Volume 103

Contributors

Acknowledgments

Cover Graphics

Preface

Part I: The Ocean’s Role in the Climate System

Part I: The Ocean's Role in the Climate System

Chapter 1. The Ocean as a Component of the Climate System

Abstract

1 Setting the Scene

2 The Ocean as an Exchanging Earth System Reservoir

3 Atmosphere–Ocean Fluxes and Meridional Transports

4 Global-Scale Surface and Deep Ocean Circulations

5 Large-Scale Modes of Variability Involving the Ocean

6 The Ocean's Role in Past Climate Change

7 The Ocean in the Anthropocene

8 Concluding Thoughts

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2. Paleoclimatic Ocean Circulation and Sea-Level Changes

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Reconstructing Past Ocean States

3 The Oceans in the Quaternary

4 The Deeper Past

5 Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Part II: Ocean Observations

Part II: Ocean Observations

Chapter 3. In Situ Ocean Observations: A Brief History, Present Status, and Future Directions

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Development of Present Observational Capability

3 Emerging and Specialized Ocean Observing Technologies

4 Changes in Data Volume and Coverage and Implication for Synthesis Products

5 The Future: Outstanding Issues and a New Framework for Global Ocean Observing

6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4. Remote Sensing of the Global Ocean Circulation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Ocean General Circulation

3 Variability of the Large-Scale Ocean Circulation

4 Mesoscale Eddies and Fronts

5 Summary and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Part III: Ocean Processes

Part III: Ocean Processes

Chapter 5. Exchanges Through the Ocean Surface

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Air–Sea Exchange Formulae and Climatological Fields

3 Measurement Techniques and Review of Datasets

4 Variability and Extremes

5 Ocean Impacts

6 Outlook and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 6. Thermodynamics of Seawater

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Absolute Salinity SA and Preformed Salinity S*

3 The Gibbs-Function Approach to Evaluating Thermodynamic Properties

4 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Conservative Temperature Θ

5 The 48-Term Expression for Specific Volume

6 Changes to Oceanographic Practice Under TEOS-10

7 Ocean Modeling Using TEOS-10

8 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7. Diapycnal Mixing Processes in the Ocean Interior

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Mixing Basics

3 Turbulence in and Below the Surface Mixed Layer

4 Mixing in the Ocean Interior

5 Discussion

6 Summary and Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8. Lateral Transport in the Ocean Interior

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Theory of Mass, Tracer, and Vector Transport

3 Observations and Models of Spatial Variations of Eddy Statistics

4 Mesoscale Isoneutral Diffusivity Variation Parameterizations

5 Conclusions and Remaining Questions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 9. Global Distribution and Formation of Mode Waters

Abstract

1 Mode Water Observations

2 Global Water Mass Census of the Upper Ocean

3 Global Distribution of Mode Water

4 Formation of Mode Water

5 PV Framework

6 Mode Water and Climate

7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10. Deepwater Formation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Processes of Deepwater Formation

3 Interannual and Decadal Variability in Properties, Formation Rate, and Circulation

4 Conclusions and Outlook

References

Part VI: Ocean Circulation and Water Masses

Part IV: Ocean Circulation and Water Masses

Chapter 11. Conceptual Models of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Wind-Driven Circulation

3 Thermohaline Circulation

4 Transient Behaviour of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation

5 Discussion and Perspective

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 12. Ocean Surface Circulation

Abstract

1 Observed Near-Surface Currents

2 Geostrophic Surface Circulation

3 Ageostrophic Currents

4 Regional Surface Ocean Dynamics

5 Applications

6 Future Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13. Western Boundary Currents

Abstract

1 General Features

2 North Atlantic

3 South Atlantic

4 Indian Ocean

5 North Pacific

6 South Pacific

7 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14. Currents and Processes along the Eastern Boundaries

Abstract

1 Introduction and General Background

2 Low-Latitude EBCs

3 Midlatitude EBCs: The EBUS

4 High-Latitude EBCs

5 Climate Variability and the Ocean’s Eastern Boundaries

6 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 15. The Tropical Ocean Circulation and Dynamics

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Tropical Pacific Variability

3 Tropical Atlantic Variability

4 Tropical Indian Ocean Variability

5 Progresses in Tropical Climate Predictions

6 Outlooks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16. The Marine Cryosphere

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Sea Ice

3 Land Ice

4 Marine Permafrost

5 Emerging Capabilities

6 Cryospheric Change

7 Summary

References

Chapter 17. The Arctic and Subarctic Oceans/Seas

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Exchanges with the Subpolar Oceans and Beyond

3 Currents and Water Mass Transformations in the Arctic/Subarctic

4 Evidence of Long-term Changes in the Arctic/Subarctic

5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 18. Dynamics of the Southern Ocean Circulation

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Progress in Understanding Southern Ocean Dynamics During WOCE (1990–2002)

3 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

4 Southern Ocean Overturning Circulation

5 Southern Ocean Change

6 Summary and Outstanding Challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19. Interocean and Interbasin Exchanges

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Interocean Exchanges at Choke Points

3 Interbasin Exchanges

4 Deep Passages

5 Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

Part V: Modeling the Ocean Climate System

Part V: Modeling the Ocean Climate System

Chapters in This Part of the Book

The Need for Ongoing Efforts from Future Generations

Chapter 20. Ocean Circulation Models and Modeling

Abstract

1 Scope of this Chapter

2 Physical and Numerical Basis for Ocean Models

3 Ocean Modeling: Science Emerging from Simulations

4 Summary Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 21. Dynamically and Kinematically Consistent Global Ocean Circulation and Ice State Estimates

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Definition

3 Data Assimilation and the Reanalyses

4 Ocean State Estimates

5 Global-Scale Solutions

6 The Uncertainty Problem

7 Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 22. Methods and Applications of Ocean Synthesis in Climate Research

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Methods with a Focus on Developments in the Last Decade

3 Applications for Climate Research

4 Assessments of the Impact of New and Future Climate Observing Systems

5 Conclusion and Future Challenges

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 23. Coupled Models and Climate Projections

Abstract

1 Formulation of Coupled Models

2 Flux Adjustments

3 Control Runs

4 Twentieth Century Runs

5 Future Projections

6 North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

7 El Nino/Southern Oscillation

8 Uses of Climate Models

9 Limitations of Climate Models

10 Cutting Edge Issues

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 24. The Ocean’s Role in Modeling and Predicting Seasonal-to-Interannual Climate Variations

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 The Scientific Basis for Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction

3 Development of Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction Systems

4 Closing Remarks: Challenges for the Future Research

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 25. The Ocean's Role in Modeling and Predicting Decadal Climate Variations

Abstract

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Tropical Pacific and Tropical Atlantic Decadal Variability

3 Description of Extratropical Decadal Variability from Observations

4 The Stochastic Climate Model: The Null Hypothesis for Climate Variability

5 Decadal Predictability

6 Summary and Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 26. Modeling Ocean Biogeochemical Processes and the Resulting Tracer Distributions

Abstract

1 Goals of Ocean Biogeochemical Modeling within Climate Research

2 Concepts and Methods of Biogeochemical Ocean Modeling

3 Model Results, Evaluation, Skill, and Limits, and Model Data Fusion/Data Assimilation

4 Major Marine Carbon Modeling Findings of the Recent Decade

5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Part VI: The Changing Ocean

Part VI: The Changing Ocean

Chapter 27. Sea-Level and Ocean Heat-Content Change

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Concepts of Sea-Level Change

3 Observations of Sea-Level Change

4 Observations of Ocean Heat-Content and Steric Sea-Level Change

5 Understanding Observed Sea-Level Change

6 Prediction and Projections of Future Sea-Level Change

7 Future Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 28. Long-term Salinity Changes and Implications for the Global Water Cycle

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Salinity Observations in the Global Oceans

3 Observed Salinity Variability

4 Observed Long-Term Changes to Ocean Salinity

5 Ocean Salinity—Relationship to the Global Water Cycle

6 Modeling Ocean Salinity Variability and Change

7 Summary and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 29. Ocean Heat Transport

Abstract

1 Background

2 Calculation of Ocean Heat Transport

3 Observation-Based Estimates of Ocean Heat Transport

4 Understanding Mechanisms

5 Ocean Heat Transport Variability

6 Synthesis and Summary

References

Further-Reading

Chapter 30. The Marine Carbon Cycle and Ocean Carbon Inventories

Abstract

1 Introduction and Background to the Marine Carbon Cycle

2 History of Observations and Capacity to Collect Marine Carbon Cycle Measurements

3 The Anthropogenic Perturbation of the Marine Carbonate System

4 Ocean Inventories, Storage Rates, and Uptake of CO2 and Cant

5 Ocean Time-Series Validation of Trends in DIC/pCO2/Cant

6 Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 31. Marine Ecosystems, Biogeochemistry, and Climate

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Phytoplankton, Primary Production, and Climate

3 Climate Impacts on Higher Trophic Levels

4 Ocean Acidification

5 Deoxygenation and Hypoxia

6 Marine Biogeochemical Cycles–Climate Interactions

7 Observational and Research Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Index

The book represents all the knowledge we currently have on ocean circulation. It presents an up-to-date summary of the state of the science relating to the role of the oceans in the physical climate system.

The book is structured to guide the reader through the wide range of world ocean circulation experiment (WOCE) science in a consistent way. Cross-references between contributors have been added, and the book has a comprehensive index and unified reference list.

The book is simple to read, at the undergraduate level. It was written by the best scientists in the world who have collaborated to carry out years of experiments to better understand ocean circulation.

• Presents in situ and remote observations with worldwide coverage
• Provides theoretical understanding of processes within the ocean and at its boundaries to other Earth System components
• Allows for simulating ocean and climate processes in the past, present and future using a hierarchy of physical-biogeochemical models

Graduate students, practitioners, researchers in oceanographic fields, atmospheric and meteorological studies