Living Chemistry

1 Matter and measurement 1.1 The scientific method 1.2 The metric system 1.3 Mass 1.4 Length 1.5 Volume 1.6 Density 1.7 Temperature 1.8 Three states of matter Summary Exercises 2 The composition of matter 2.1 The atom 2.2 Charge 2.3 Atomic number 2.4 Atomic mass 2.5 The structure of atoms 2.6 Isotopes 2.7 Elements 2.8 Atomic weight 2.9 The periodic table 2.10 Properties of the elements 2.11 Elements important to health Summary Exercises 3 Chemical bonding 3.1 The chemical bond 3.2 Covalent bonding 3.3 The molecule 3.4 Lewis symbols 3.5 Diatomic molecules 3.6 Polar covalent bonds 3.7 Valence 3.8 Naming covalent compounds 3.9 Ions 3.10 Charges of ions 3.11 Ionic bonds 3.12 Writing formulas of ionic compounds 3.13 Polyatomic ions Summary Exercises 4 Compounds and chemical change 4.1 Formula or molecular weight of compounds 4.2 Percentage composition 4.3 The mole 4.4 Compounds vs mixtures 4.5 Chemical reactions 4.6 Balancing chemical equations 4.7 Interpreting equations 4.8 Calculations based on equations 4.9 Types of reactions 4.10 Oxidation-reduction reactions 4.11 Energy and chemical reactions 4.12 Reversibility of reactions 4.13 Rate of a reaction Summary Exercises 5 Gases and respiration 5.1 Kinetic molecular theory 5.2 Diffusion 5.3 Temperature 5.4 Pressure 5.5 The gas laws: pressure and volume 5.6 Breathing 5.7 The gas laws: pressure and temperature 5.8 The gas laws: volume and temperature 5.9 The gas laws: the quantity of gas 5.10 Air and partial pressures 5.11 Respiration 5.12 Oxygen therapy 5.13 Other important gases Summary Exercises 6 Water 6.1 The structure of water 6.2 Kinetic theory of liquids and solids 6.3 Evaporation 6.4 The calorie and specific heat 6.5 Heat and the states of water 6.6 Density and specific gravity 6.7 Surface tension 6.8 Viscosity 6.9 Water pressure 6.10 Water of hydration 6.11 Water purification 6.12 Water balance 6.13 Humidity therapy Summary Exercises 7 Solutions 7.1 Types of solutions 7.2 The process of dissolving 7.3 Solubility of solids 7.4 Saturation 7.5 The solubility of liquids and gases 7.6 Concentration of solutions—percentage 7.7 Molarity 7.8 Dilution of solutions 7.9 Osmosis 7.10 Osmosis and the blood 7.11 Colloids 7.12 Dialysis Summary Exercises 8 Acids, bases, and salts 8.1 Acids 8.2 Properties of acids 8.3 Bases 8.4 Properties of bases 8.5 The pH of acids and bases 8.6 Measurement of pH 8.7 Neutralization and titration 8.8 Normality 8.9 Salts and hydrolysis 8.10 Body electrolytes 8.11 Buffers 8.12 Acidosis and alkalosis Summary Exercises 9 Nuclear chemistry and radiation 9.1 Radioactivity 9.2 Nuclear reactions 9.3 Natural radioactivity 9.4 Artificial radioactivity 9.5 Half-life 9.6 Nuclear energy 9.7 X-ray radiation and photography 9.8 Detection of radiation 9.9 Units of radiation 9.10 Radioisotopes in diagnosis 9.11 Radiation therapy and cancer 9.12 Effects of radiation 9.13 Radiation safety Summary Exercises 10 Organic chemistry—hydrocarbons 10.1 The carbon atom 10.2 Alkanes 10.3 Alkyl groups 10.4 Isomers 10.5 Reactions of alkanes 10.6 Alkenes 10.7 Reactions of alkenes 10.8 Alkynes 10.9 Cycloalkanes 10.10 Aromatic hydrocarbons—benzene 10.11 Properties of benzene 10.12 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Summary Exercises11 Oxygen derivatives of the hydrocarbons 11.1 Functional groups 11.2 Alcohols 11.3 Examples of alcohols 11.4 Reactions of alcohols 11.5 Ethers 11.6 Reactions of ethers 11.7 Aldehydes 11.8 Reactions of aldehydes 11.9 Ketones 11.10 Acids 11.11 Reactions of acids 11.12 Esters 11.13 Reactions of esters Summary Exercises 12 Other organic derivatives and polymers 12.1 Halogen derivatives 12.2 Sulfur derivatives 12.3 Nitrogen derivatives—amines 12.4 Reactions of amines 12.5 Nitrogen derivatives—amides 12.6 Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds 12.7 Nitrogen derivatives—alkaloids 12.8 Other nitrogen derivatives 12.9 Organic polymers 12.10 Addition polymers 12.11 Condensation polymers Summary Exercises 13 Carbohydrates 13.1 Classification of carbohydrates 13.2 Monosaccharides 13.3 Open and closed forms of monosaccharides 13.4 Glucose 13.5 Other hexoses—galactose and fructose 13.6 Disaccharides 13.7 Polysaccharides 13.8 Reactions of carbohydrates 13.9 Optical isomers and carbohydrates Summary Exercises 14 Lipids 14.1 Fatty acids 14.2 Soaps and detergents 14.3 Waxes 14.4 Fats and oils 14.5 Properties of fats and oils 14.6 Body fats 14.7 Phospholipids 14.8 Cell membranes and active transport 14.9 Sphingolipids 14.10 Steroids Summary Exercises 15 Proteins 15.1 The amino acids 15.2 Properties of amino acids 15.3 Primary structure of proteins 15.4 Secondary structure of proteins 15.5 Tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins 15.6 Examples of protein structure 15.7 Classification of proteins 15.8 Properties of proteins 15.9 Denaturation of proteins 15.10 Protein and mineral—bones and teeth Summary Exercises 16 Enzymes and digestion 16.1 Mechanism of enzyme action 16.2 Classification of enzymes 16.3 Factors affecting enzyme activity 16.4 Enzyme cofactors 16.5 Inhibitors 16.6 Applications of enzymes in medicine 16.7 Enzymes and nerve impulses 16.8 Enzymes of carbohydrate digestion 16.9 Enzymes of lipid digestion 16.10 Enzymes of protein digestion Summary Exercises 17 Energy and carbohydrate metabolism 17.1 Biochemical energy 17.2 Electron transfer 17.3 Storage and transfer of energy 17.4 Uses of energy in the body 17.5 Glycolysis 17.6 Citric acid (Krebs) cycle 17.7 The respiratory chain 17.8 Products of glucose catabolism 17.9 Carbohydrate anabolism 17.10 Glycogen metabolism 17.11 Blood glucose Summary Exercises 18 Metabolism of lipids 18.1 The fatty acid "cycle" 18.2 Energy released by lipid catabolism 18.3 Lipogenesis 18.4 Role of acetyl-CoA 18.5 Ketosis 18.6 Ketoacidosis 18.7 Body lipids 18.8 Obesity 18.9 Blood lipids and atherosclerosis 18.10 Lipids and diet Summary Exercises 19 Metabolism of proteins 19.1 The nitrogen cycle 19.2 Amino acid catabolism 19.3 The urea (ornithine) cycle 19.4 Amino acid anabolism 19.5 Metabolism of other nitrogen compounds 19.6 Nitrogen balance 19.7 Dietary protein 19.8 Protein deficiency—kwashiorkor 19.9 Metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins Summary Exercises 20 Heredity and protein synthesis 20.1 Nucleotides 20.2 Polynucleotides and base pairing 20.3 Transcription 20.4 Translation of the genetic code 20.5 Protein synthesis 20.6 Regulation of synthesis 20.7 DNA replication 20.8 Mutations 20.9 Mutagens 20.10 Molecular (genetic) diseases 20.11 Information transfer Summary Exercises 21 Vitamins and hormones 21.1 Vitamins 21.2 Water-soluble vitamins—thiamin 21.3 Water-soluble vitamins—riboflavin 21.4 Water-soluble vitamins—niacin 21.5 Water-soluble vitamins—folacin 21.6 Water-soluble vitamins—pantothenic acid 21.7 Water-soluble vitamins—vitamin B6 21.8 Water-soluble vitamins—vitamin B12 21.9 Water-soluble vitamins—ascorbic acid 21.10 Water-soluble vitamins—biotin 21.11 Lipid-soluble vitamins—vitamin A 21.12 Lipid-soluble vitamins—vitamin D 21.13 Lipid-soluble vitamins—vitamin Ε 21.14 Lipid-soluble vitamins—vitamin Κ 21.15 Recommended dietary allowances 21.16 Hormones 21.17 Thyroxine (thyroid gland) 21.18 Parathormone (parathyroid gland) 21.19 Calcitonin (parathyroid gland) 21.20 Insulin (pancreas) 21.21 Glucagon (pancreas) 21.22 Testosterone (male gonads) 21.23 Estrogen (female gonads) 21.24 Progesterone (female gonads) 21.25 Epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenal gland) 21.26 Cortisol and aldosterone (adrenal gland) 21.27 Vasopressin (hypophysis or pituitary) 21.28 Adrenocorticotropni (hypophysis) 21.29 Gonadotropic hormones (hypophysis) 21.30 Growth hormone (hypophysis) 21.31 Thyrotropin (hypophysis) 21.32 Hormonal regulation 21.33 Examples of hormone function Summary Exercises 22 Chemistry of the body fluids 22.1 Blood plasma 22.2 Blood antibodies 22.3 Blood clotting 22.4 Erythrocytes and gas transport 22.5 Abnormal number of erythrocytes 22.6 Blood groups 22.7 Leukocytes 22.8 Blood analysis 22.9 Other extracellular fluids 22.10 Milk 22.11 Urine 22.12 Normal composition of urine 22.13 Abnormal compounds in urine Summary Exercises 23 Drugs and poisons 23.1 The action of drugs 23.2 Antibiotics 23.3 Aspirin and analgesics 23.4 Narcotic analgesics 23.5 Anesthetics 23.6 Sedative-hypnotics 23.7 Antianxiety and antipsychotic drugs 23.8 Alcohol 23.9 Stimulants 23.10 Hallucinogens 23.11 Drugs and the autonomic nervous system 23.12 Poisons 23.13 Environmental pollutants Summary Exercises Appendix A Basic mathematics for chemistry A.1 Fractions, decimals, and percent A.2 Scientific (exponential) notation A.3 Proportions and algebra A.4 The unit-factor method Appendix B Metric system conversions B.1 Conversions within the metric system B.2 Conversions between the English and metric systems B.3 Temperature conversions Exercises Appendix C Orbitals C.1 Electron configurations of the atoms C.2 Hybrid orbitalsAppendix D Details of glucose catabolism D.1 Glycolysis D.2 The citric acid cycle Appendix E The Cell Appendix F Answers to numerical problems Index