Erosion and Environment

Acknowledgment


1. Introduction


1.1 Effects of Erosion on the National Economy


1.1.1 Consequences of Soil Loss


1.1.2 Consequences of Soil Removal and Sedimentation


1.1.3 Consequences of the Transportation of Chemical Substances


1.2 Geographical Distribution of Erosion on a World Scale


1.2.1 The History of Erosion


2. Classification of Erosion


2.1 Classification of Erosion by Erosion Agents


2.2 Classification of Erosion by Form


2.2.1 Surface Water Erosion


2.2.2 Subsurface Water Erosion


2.2.3 Wind Erosion


2.3 Classification of Erosion by Intensity


3. Mechanism of Erosion Processes


3.1 Climatic and Hydrological Agents


3.1.1 Precipitation and Its Physical Characteristics


3.1.2 Erosivity of Rainfall


3.1.3 Solid Precipitation


3.1.4 Runoff


3.2 Morphological Factors


3.2.1 The Effect of Slope Gradient


3.2.2 The Effect of Slope Length


3.2.3. Combined Effects of Slope Gradient and Slope Length


3.2.4 Shape of Slope


3.2.5 Slope Exposure


3.3 Geological and Soil Factor


3.3.1 Geological Factor


3.3.2 Soil Factor


3.4 Vegetative Cover


3.5 Technical Factor


3.6 Socio-economic Factor


4. Theory of Water Erosion


4.1 Sheet Surface Runoff


4.2 Concentrated Surface Runoff


4.3 Surface Runoff Modeling


4.3.1 Models of Surface Runoff from Catchment Area


4.3.2 Model of Surface Runoff from Slope


4.4 Transportation Processes


4.4.1 Fundamental Principles of the Mechanism of Transportation Processes


4.4.2 Transportation Processes in Surface Waters


4.4.3 Transportation Processes in Soil


5. Predicting Intensity of Water Erosion and Modeling Erosion Processes


5.1 Erosion Intensity in Dependence on Surface Runoff Velocity and Its Tangential Stress


5.2 Empirical Models of Erosion Processes


5.2.1 W. H. Wischmeier and D. D. Smith's Empirical Model of Erosion


5.3 Conceptual Models of Erosion


5.4 Predicting Erosion Intensity in the Catchment


6. Theory of Wind. Erosion


6.1 Erosive Action of Wind


6.2 Movement of Soil Particles by the Action of Wind


6.2.1 Movement of Soil Particles in the Form of Suspension


6.2.2 Movement of Soil Particles by Saltation


6.2.3 Movement of Soil Particles by Creep


6.2.4 Distance to Which Soil Particles are Transported by Wind Erosion


7. Intensity of Wind Erosion and Predicting Wind Erosion


7.1 Relation between Wind Erosion Intensity and Erosion Agents


7.2 Determination and Prediction of Wind Erosion


8. Erosion and Environmental Control


8.1 Pollution Sources


8.1.1 Mineral Fertilizers


8.1.2 Pesticides


8.1.3 Wastes and Sludges


8.2 Transportation of Pollutants


8.3 Consequences of Water Pollution by Erosion


8.4 Water and Soil Pollution Control


9. Erosion Control


9.1 Theoretical Analysis of Permissible Slope Length


9.2 Agricultural and Forestry Measures


9.2.1 Location of Cultures


9.2.2 Shape, Area and Location of Agricultural Plots


9.2.3 Communications


9.2.4 Soil Cultivation


9.2.5 Use of Vegetation for Soil Conservation


9.3 Technical Control of Sheet Runoff


9.3.1 Infiltration Strips


9.3.2 Cultivated Broad-base Terraces


9.3.3 Interception Ditches


9.3.4 Erosion Control Ridges


9.3.5 Bench Terraces


9.3.6 Drainage Structures


9.4 Technical Control of Concentrated Surface Runoff


9.4.1 Erosion Control Reservoirs


9.4.2 Control of Gullies and Ravines


9.4.3 Torrent Control


9.5 Chemical Erosion Control


10. Economics of Erosion Control