Durum Wheat Chemistry and Technology

Chapter 1. Origin and Distribution of Durum Wheat Genetic Diversity in the WorldAlessandro Bozzini, Jacques David, and Vincenzo NatoliEvolution and Classification of WheatsA Common Ancestral Genome for Grasses Polyploidization: A Common Evolutionary Feature in Triticeae Classification of Wheats Within a Polyploid Series Diploid Progenitors of Wild Polyploid WheatsDomestication and DifferentiationCrop Cereal Emergence During the Neolithic Period The Diploid Einkorn Wild Tetraploids and Domestication Dissemination of Cultivated Emmer and Landrace Differentiation Rise of the Modern T. turgidum subsp. durum and Others with Free-Threshing Subspecies Durum Wheat Evolution Under Modern Genetic Improvement DNA Marker Analysis of Modern Wheats Bread Wheat and Hexaploid Forms TriticaleSources of Genetic Diversity for BreedingRole of Wild and Primitive Wheats Genetic Variability in Traditional Durum Wheat Landraces Genetic Variability in the Elite Germplasm

Chapter 2. Genetics and Breeding of Durum WheatJohn M. Clarke, Enzo Deambrogio, Raymond A. Hare, and Pierre RoumetOverview of BreedingEurope North America Australia Other ProgramsBreeding ObjectivesYield and Agronomic Traits Resistance to Abiotic Stresses Resistance to Diseases and Insects End-Use and Nutritional Quality Other TraitsBreeding MethodologyConventional Doubled Haploids Genetic Diversity and New Traits Marker-Assisted SelectionGenetic ProgressGrain Yield End-Use QualityFuture Prospects

Chapter 3. Agronomy of Durum Wheat ProductionCynthia Ann Grant, Natale Di Fonzo, and Michele PisanteEnvironment of Production AreaCultivar Selection Crop Rotation Tillage System Seeding Date Seeding Rate Weed Control Disease Control Control of Insect Pests IrrigationNutrient ManagementNitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur MicronutrientsPrecision AgricultureEnvironmental ConsiderationsConclusion

Chapter 4. Diseases of Durum WheatMyriam R. Fernandez and Ron E. KnoxSpecific DiseasesFusarium Head Blight Leaf Spots Rusts Root and Crown/Foot Rot Take-All Kernel Discoloration Loose Smut Bunts Ergot Bacterial Black Chaff and Bacterial Leaf Streak Viruses Powdery MildewPre- and Postharvest Infections and Disorders Chemical Control of Diseases Biological Control of Diseases Micronutrients and Diseases Marker-Assisted Selection Challenges and Future Needs

Chapter 5. Insect and Mite Pests of Durum WheatPasquale Trematerra and James ThroneInsect PestsInternal Feeders External FeedersMite Pests Pest Management

Chapter 6. Kernel Components of Technological ValueDomenico Lafiandra, Stefania Masci, Mike Sissons, Emmie Dornez, Jan A. Delcour, Christophe M. Courtin, and Maria Fiorenza CaboniProteinsProtein Content Kernel Proteins ConclusionsStarchStarch Structure and Composition Durum Wheat Starch vs. Common Wheat Starch Role of Starch in Influencing Dough and Pasta Quality Changes in Starch During Pasta Processing Starch Degradation in Pasta During Enzymic DigestionNonstarch Polysaccharides and Enzymes that Hydrolyze ThemArabinoxylan Arabinogalactan Peptide -Glucan Fructan Cellulose Heteromannan LigninDurum Wheat LipidsDistribution Composition of Grain Lipids Sterols Alkylresorcinols Polar Lipids Tocochromanols Carotenoids

Chapter 7. Vitamins, Minerals, and Nutritional Value of Durum WheatCynthia Grant, Francesco Cubadda, Marina Carcea, Norberto E. Pogna, and Laura GazzaOverviewVitamin Content Mineral Composition Dietary Fiber Other Nutritional Compounds in Durum Wheat Effect of Processing and Cooking on Nutritive Value Practices to Increase Nutritional QualityDurum Wheat and Celiac DiseaseGenetic, Biological, and Immunologic Aspects of CD Prolamins as Immunostimulatory Agents in CD Therapy for CD in Relation to Durum WheatConclusions

Chapter 8. Durum Wheat MillingWolfgang Gruber and Ashok SarkarOverview Durum Milling ProcessReception of Grain Cleaning Milling Machines Grinding Stages in Durum Milling Flow Sheet Technology for Durum Milling Other Systems in the MillHandling of Finished ProductsBlending and Storage of Semolina Safety and Hygiene of Product Product AnalysisMilling Quality Requirements for Other Durum-Wheat End ProductsDurum Wheat Flour for Bread Durum Wheat Flour for Yellow Alkaline Noodles Durum Wheat Flour for Chapatti Sheeted ProductsConclusion

Chapter 9. Manufacture of Pasta ProductsClaudio M. Pollini, Francesco Pantò, Antonio Nespoli, Mike Sissons, and Joel AbecassisOverview Raw Materials for Pasta Production Pasta-Dough Formation, Extrusion, and Shaping on an Industrial scaleRaw Material Dosing Hydration and Mixing-Kneading Extrusion and Shaping of PastaPhysicochemical Changes During Pasta-Dough Formation and Extrusion and Implications for Pasta Quality Pasta Drying TechnologyTechnological Principles of Pasta Drying Moisture Transfer During Drying Phase Transition and Checking Long-Cut Pasta Dryer Design and Technology Short-Cut Pasta Dryer Design and TechnologyImpact of Drying Conditions on Pasta CharacteristicsPhysicochemical Changes During Pasta Drying and Implications for Pasta Quality Effects of Drying Temperature on Starch and Protein ComponentsConclusions

Chapter 10. Other Traditional Durum-Derived ProductsJoel Abecassis, Bernard Cuq, Gaetano Boggini, and Hacène NamouneDurum Wheat Products from GrainsBulgur Frekeh Other Durum Grain ProductsSemolina Agglomeration in the Form of CouscousCouscous Attributes of Quality Raw Materials for Couscous Production Couscous ProcessingDurum Wheat Products from BakingDurum Wheat Bread Diverse Durum Breads Durum PastryConclusions

Chapter 11. Pasta Made from Nontraditional Raw Materials: Technological and Nutritional AspectsEmanuele Marconi and Maria Cristina MessiaOverview Reasons for Using Nontraditional Raw Materials in Pasta MakingImprovement of Nutritional Properties Use of Local Raw Materials Production of Gluten-Free Pasta Valorization of Cereal and Noncereal By-Products Development of Tailor-Made and Functional Foods Use, Recovery, or Valorization of Ancient, Obsolete, or Underutilized Wheats and PseudocerealsPasta Making: Formulations and ProcessingBalanced Formulations Modification of Traditional Processing Technologies or Adoption of Alternative TechnologiesConclusions

Chapter 12. Methods Used to Assess and Predict Quality of Durum Wheat, Semolina, and PastaMike Sissons, Joël Abecassis, Brian Marchylo, and Raimondo CubaddaOverview Wheat Quality MethodsTest Weight Weight per Thousand Kernels Hard Vitreous Kernel Count Moisture Content Sprout Damage Ash Content Protein Content Gluten Strength Wheat Yellow Pigment ContentSemolina Milling Quality AssessmentDefinitions and Influencing Factors Methods for Assessing Durum Milling QualityPasta Quality AssessmentPasta Quality Evaluation Tests Laboratory Pasta-Making Tests Instrumental Methods to Determine Pasta Cooking Quality Other MethodsEmerging Small-Scale, Rapid Quality-Prediction MethodsBiochemical Tests to Predict Gluten Quality Glutenin-to-Gliadin Ratio and Percentage of Unextractable Polymeric Protein Allelic Variation as an Indicator of Gluten Quality Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Calibrations to Predict Quality from Grain or Wholemeal Image Analysis to Assess Quality Antibodies to Assess Quality Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging Conclusion

Chapter 13. Grading Factors Impacting Durum Wheat Processing QualityJames E. Dexter and Maria Grazia D’egidioOverview Factors Affecting EdibilityErgot Fusarium DamageFactors Affecting ProcessingTest Weight Dockage and Foreign Material Protein Content Wheat of Other Classes Hard Vitreous Kernels Frost Damage and Immaturity Weathering and Mildew Sprout Damage Heat Damage Smudge and Black Point Shrunken and Broken Kernels Insect Damage During Kernel MaturationConclusions

Chapter 14. Grain Safety Assurance, Including Impacts on Durum Wheat TradingThomas W. Nowicki, Randall M. Clear, Eugene J. Gawalko, and Michelangelo PascaleOverviewHistorical Perspective on Grain Safety AssuranceMajor Food Safety Issues for Durum Wheat MarketingGrain Safety Hazards Major IssuesKey Factors and TrendsIncreasing Awareness and Knowledge About Food Safety Laboratory Capabilities for Trace-Level Measurement of Toxic Substances Food Safety Regulations and Controls Communication of Food Safety Incidents Trade IrritationsMarketing Realities Concerning Food SafetyTypes of Customer Demands HACCP ProgramsThe Analytical ProcessMeasurement Error Major ChallengesBasic Elements, Objectives, and Strategies of Grain Safety AssuranceFundamentals Grain Safety Assurance in CanadaFate and Retention of Mycotoxins in Wheat upon Processing Conclusions

Chapter 15. Marketing Perspectives in the Durum Wheat TradeRoberto Ranieri, Graham Worden, María Laura Seghezzo, and Cindy MillsOverview Worldwide Marketing of Durum WheatCanada Italy The United States France Spain Greece Mexico Australia ArgentinaOther ProducersOther Factors Influencing Marketing and Pricing Conclusion