Controlled Atmospheres for Heat Treatment
The Pergamon Materials Engineering Practice Series
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Controlled Atmospheres for Heat Treatment describes the reaction complexities in heat treatment of metals under controlled atmosphere. Organized into 13 chapters, this book begins with the methods and classifications of heat treatment in controlled atmospheres. This topic is followed by the most popular atmospheres of heat treatment, namely, nitrogen and vacuum. The subsequent chapters deal with the components of heat treatment atmospheres, such as exogas, nitrogen base of monogas, endogas, and ammonia. The discussion then shifts to special gas atmospheres, including steam and those produced by cracking organic liquids. This book also covers several heat treatment processes, such as annealing, hardening, tempering, and heat treatment of powder metallurgical products in controlled atmospheres. A chapter describes the common methods used in protective gas techniques. The concluding chapter presents some dangers associated with controlled atmospheres and their corresponding technical safety precautions.
Table of Contents
1 Heat Treatment in Controlled Atmospheres
1.1 Interaction Between Metals and Gas Atmospheres
1.2 Gaseous Constituents of Controlled Atmospheres
1.2.1 Oxygen
1.2.2 Nitrogen
1.2.3 Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
1.2.4 Hydrogen
1.2.5 Water Vapor
1.2.6 Hydrocarbons
1.3 Chemical Effects of the Individual Atmosphere Constituents on Metals and Alloys
1.3.1 Equilibrium Conditions between Controlled Atmospheres and Metals
1.3.2 Interpretation of the Equilibrium Constant and Its Application in Controlled-Atmosphere Technology
1.3.3 Oxidation
1.3.4 Calculation of Principal Oxidizing Reactions
1.3.5 Decarburizing Reactions
1.3.6 Calculations for Reactions Involving Decarburization
1.3.7 Reactions Resulting in Sulphide Formation
1.3.8 Controlled Oxidation Effects
1.4 Interchange of Elements Between Atmosphere and Metals and Alloys
2 Methods of Heat Treatment in Controlled Atmospheres and the Principal Atmospheres Employed
2.1 Principal Controlled Atmospheres
2.1.1 Endogas Atmospheres
2.1.2 Exogas Atmospheres
2.1.3 Prepared Nitrogen Base or Monogas Atmospheres
2.1.4 Resume of the Chemistry of Atmosphere Preparation
2.1.5 Dissociated Ammonia
2.2 Controlled Atmosphere Generating Plant
2.3 Main Characteristics of Controlled Atmospheres
2.3.1 Composition, Dew Point and Fields of Application
2.3.2 Relative Usage of Protective Atmospheres
2.3.3 Relative Costs of Producing Protective Atmospheres
2.4 Classification of Annealing Treatments Carried out in Controlled Atmospheres
2.4.1 Bright Annealing
2.4.2 Reducing Annealing
2.4.3 Scale-Free Annealing
2.4.4 Low-scale Annealing
2.5 Classification of Atmospheres According to Their Effects
2.5.1 Inert Atmospheres
2.5.2 Neutral Atmospheres
2.5.3 Active Gas Atmospheres
3 Inert-Gas Atmospheres and Vacuum
3.1 Argon and Helium
3.2 Nitrogen
3.3 Hydrogen
3.4 Vacuum as an Atmosphere
4 Exogas Atmospheres
4.1 Properties of Exogas Atmospheres
4.2 Construction and Operation of Exothermic Gas Generators
4.2.1 Oxygen Removal
4.2.2 Sulphur Removal
4.3 Advantages, Disadvantages and Typical Applications of Exothermic-Base Atmospheres
4.4 Production of Exothermic-Base Atmospheres from Hydrocarbons
5 Prepared Nitrogen-Base or Monogas Atmospheres
5.1 Properties
5.2 Prepared Nitrogen-Base or Monogas Generators
5.2.1 Modern Methods of Monogas Production
5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Prepared Nitrogenbase or Monogas Atmospheres and Typical Applications
5.3.1 Applicability as a Function of Temperature
5.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Monogas
5.4 Limitations on the Application of Monogas
5.5 Evaluation of Monogas
6 Endogas Atmospheres
6.1 Theoretical Considerations
6.2 Fuel Gas Bases for Endogas Production
6.2.1 Natural Gas
6.2.2 Propane
6.2.3 Town Gas
6.2.4 Hydrocarbon-Steam Reaction
6.3 Design and Operation of Endogas Generators
6.3.1 Catalysts
6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Endogas Atmospheres and Fields of Application
6.5 Production of Endogas from Liquid Hydrocarbons
6.6 Exo-endogas Atmospheres
7 Ammonia-Base Atmospheres
7.1 Types of Ammonia-Base Atmospheres
7.2 Properties of Atmospheres Obtained by the Dissociation of Ammonia
7.3 Design and Operation of Ammonia Crackers
7.3.1 Cylinder Battery
7.3.2 Preparation of Controlled, Protective Atmospheres from Liquid Ammonia
7.3.3 Auxiliary Equipment
7.3.4 Safety Precautions
7.3.5 Handling of Protective Atmospheres Consisting of H2 + N2
7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Dissociated/Cracked Ammonia and Typical Applications
7.5 Burnt Ammonia
7.5.1 The "Nitroneal" Process
8 Special Gas Atmospheres
8.1 Steam Atmospheres
8.1.1 Steam Generating Plant
8.1.2 Advantages of Steam Treating
8.2 Gas Atmospheres Prepared by Cracking Organic Liquids
8.2.1 Principles of Preparation
8.2.2 Organic Liquids used to Prepare Controlled Atmospheres
8.2.3 Operating Conditions of the Equipment
8.2.4 Controlled Atmospheres Produced Externally
9 Heat-Treatment Furnaces and Heat-Treatment Processes
9.1 Selection of a Gas Atmosphere
9.2 Annealing of Acid and Heat-Resistant Steels
9.3 Heat Treatment of Electrical, Silicon Steels
9.4 Patenting of Steel Wire
9.5 Hardening of High-Speed Steels
9.6 Heat Treatment of Malleable Cast Iron
9.6.1 Heat Treatment of White-Heart Malleable Cast Iron
9.6.2 Heat Treatment of Black-Heart Malleable Cast Iron
9.6.3 Heat Treatment of Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron
9.7 Hardening and Tempering
9.7.1 Hardening and tempering of springs
9.7.2 Heat Treatment of Engine valves
9.7.3 Hardening and Tempering of Ball Races
9.7.4 Hardening and Tempering of Mass-Produced Parts
9.8 Bright-Annealing of Copper
9.9 Heat Treatment of Brass Products
9.9.1 Oxidation of Brass
9.9.2 Annealing of Brass Strip and Wire
9.9.3 Tower-Type Furnaces for Heat-Treating Brass Strip
9.10 Annealing of Bronze Wire
9.11 Heat Treatment of Nickel Silver
9.12 Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys
9.13 Vacuum Heat Treatment
9.13.1 Equipment for Vacuum Hardening
9.13.2 Hardening of High-Alloy Tool Steels
9.13.3 Vacuum Hardening of Low-Alloy Steels
9.13.4 Heat Treatment of Transformer Sheets
9.13.5 Combined Application of Vacuum and Protective Gas in the Heat Treatment of Copper Wires
10 Heat Treatment of Powder Metallurgical Products in Controlled Atmospheres
10.1 Principles of Powder Metallurgy Processes
10.2 Principal Powder Metallurgical Products
10.3 Production of Metal Powders
10.4 Pre-treatment of Metal Powders
10.5 Pressing of Metal Powders
10.6 Sintering of Powder Metallurgical Products
10.7 Post-treatment of Sintered Products
11 Brazing of Metals in Controlled Atmospheres
11.1 Principles of Brazing
11.2 Technology of Brazing
11.2.1 Brazing Materials
11.2.2 Surface Preparation of Joints
11.2.3 Methods of Heating
11.3 Brazing in Controlled Atmospheres
11.3.1 Box-Type Batch Furnaces
11.3.2 Continuous Brazing Furnaces
11.3.3 Atmospheres Used for Brazing
12 Analysis and Control of Furnace Atmospheres
12.1 Absorption Gas Analyzers
12.1.1 The Orsat (Analyzer) Apparatus
12.1.2 Analyzers Based on the Change in Conductivity of Solutions
12.2 Analyzers Based on the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity
12.3 Analyzers Based on the Measurement of Heat Evolved from Specific Reactions
12.3.1 Instruments Employing the Catalytic Oxidation Technique
12.3.2 Instruments Based on the Measurement of Heat Absorption
12.4 Analyzers Based on Calorimetric Measurements
12.4.1 Instruments Measuring the Calorific Value
12.4.2 Instruments Measuring the Wobbe Number or Index
12.5 Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzers
12.6 Gas Chromatography
12.7 Analyzers Based on Color Change Reactions (Colorimetry)
12.8 Galvanic Cells as Gas Analyzers
12.9 Analysis and Control of Carbon Potential
12.9.1 Direct Measurement of the Carbon Potential
12.9.2 Indirect Measurement of the Carbon Potential
12.10 Accessories for Measuring Instruments
12.10.1 Sampling
12.10.2 Cooling
12.10.3 Filtering and Dust Removal
12.10.4 Drying
12.10.5 Removal of Corrosive Gases
12.10.6 Gas Pumps
12.10.7 Automatic Change-over Valves
12.10.8 Signal Delay
12.10.9 Flow Meters
12.10.10 Calibration of Gas Analyzers
13 Safety Precautions
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Dangers Associated with Controlled Atmospheres
13.2.1 Danger of Asphyxia—Lack of Oxygen
13.2.2 Danger of Poisoning
13.2.3 Danger of Fire and Fire Hazards
13.2.4 Formation of Hazardous Gas-Air Mixtures
13.2.5 Danger of Explosion Hazards
13.2.6 Dangers Associated with Specific Controlled Atmospheres
13.3 Technical Precautions to Prevent Accidents
13.3.1 Techniques for Purging Furnace Chambers
13.4 The Storage of Gases
13.5 Special Safety Equipment
13.5.1 Safety Equipment for Gas-Generators
13.5.2 Observations Regarding Gas-Fired Furnaces
13.5.3 Lighting of Fuel-Burning Appliances
13.6 General Comments on Safety
13.6.1 Equipment
13.6.2 Personnel
13.6.3 Organization
13.7 First Aid
13.7.1 First Aid in the Case of Burns
13.7.2 First Aid in the Case of Poisoning
References and Bibliography
Index
Product details
- No. of pages: 256
- Language: English
- Copyright: © Pergamon 1984
- Published: January 1, 1984
- Imprint: Pergamon
- eBook ISBN: 9781483153971
About the Author
R. Nemenyi
About the Editor
G. H. J. Bennett
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