Telecommunications Law in the Internet Age

Chapter 1 - Introduction—The New Telecommunications Environment1.1 New Transport Technologies 1.2 Converged Voice, Data, Video, and Graphics Systems 1.3 Legal Changes 1.3.1 Breakup of the Bell System 1.3.2 The Internet 1.3.3 Changes in State Law 1.3.4 The Telecommunications Act of 1996 1.3.5 World Trade Organization Agreement of 19971.4 International Telecommunications Equipment Markets 1.5 Technical Standards 1.6 What Is Communicated? 1.7 With Whom Are We Communicating? 1.8 Where Are We Communicating? 1.9 New Local Access Options 1.10 Universal Service Fund Support of Internet Connections 1.11 Structural Changes Conclusion EndnotesPart I The New Competitive Telecommunications EnvironmentChapter 2 - Competition and Regulation—a Continuing Telecommunications Cycle2.1 Competition versus Regulation—Seeking a Balance 2.1.1 Rise of Trusts and Anticompetitive Behavior 2.1.2 Antitrust Law and Regulation 2.1.3 Impact of Technological Changes2.2 Early Competition the Communications Industry 2.2.1 Telegraph 2.2.2 International Telegraph Communications 2.2.3 Equipment Manufacturing 2.2.4 Telephone2.3 The Rise of the Bell System Dominance 2.3.1 Bell's Patent Exclusivity and Return on Investment 2.3.2 AT&T Parent over Bell System and Western Union 2.3.3 AT&T's Refusal to Interconnect with Competitors2.4 Regulation of the Communications Industry 2.4.1 1912 Antitrust Case: Settled with 1913 Kingsbury Commitment 2.4.2 Universal Service 2.4.3 1921 The Willis-Graham Act 2.4.4 1934 Communications Act 2.4.5 1949 Antitrust Case: Settled with 1956 Consent Decree 2.4.6 1974 Antitrust Case: Settled with 1982 Modified Final Judgment2.5 Technological Convergence and Renewed Competition 2.5.1 Customer Premises Equipment 2.5.2 Microwave 2.5.3 Undersea Cables 2.5.4 Satellites 2.5.5 ComputersConclusion EndnotesChapter 3 - The Telecommunications Act of 19963.1 Purpose of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 3.1.1 Federal Action 3.1.2 States' Action3.2 Structure and Organization of the 1996 Act—47 U.S.C. §§ 151 et seq.3.3. Definitions—Section 3 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 3.3.1 Three-Pronged Definition of Telecommunications 3.3.2 Definitions of Carriers 3.3.3 Definitions of Equipment3.4 Provisions to Open the Competitive Market 3.4.1 Three Ways to Enter the New Competitive Market, 251(c)(2-4) 3.4.2 Implementation of the 1996 Act, § 251(d)(1) 3.4.3 Process for Writing Interconnection Agreements, § 252 3.4.4 Post-Approval Issues3.5 Duties and Obligations of Carriers 3.5.1 All Telecommunications Carriers, § 251(a) 3.5.2 Duties of Local Exchange Carriers, § 251(b) 3.5.3 Duties of Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers, § 251(c) 3.5.4 Duties of Bell Operating Companies, § 2713.6 Challenges to the Constitutionality of Section 271 Requirements 3.6.1 Bill of Attainder 3.6.2 Separation of Powers 3.6.3 Equal Protection Clause 3.6.4 Bell Operating Companies' Right to Free SpeechConclusion EndnotesChapter 4 - Outstanding Issues from the Telecommunications Act of 19964.1 Local Number Portability 4.1.1 Three Types of Number Portability 4.1.2 The North American Numbering Plan 4.1.3 Pre-1996 Number Portability in the United States 4.1.4 Interim Methods 4.1.5 Long-Term Database-Dip Methods 4.1.6 Number Portability Regulation 4.1.7 Ongoing Issues4.2 Universal Service 4.2.1 The Early Concept 4.2.2 Universal Service in the 1996 Act4.3 Access 4.3.1 FCC's 1983 Access Charge Rules 4.3.2 Initial Challenge to FCC's Exemption of ISPs—ACTA's Internet Phone Petition to Designate ISPs as Long-Distance Providers4.3.3 Impact of the Telecommunications Act of 19964.4 Reciprocal Compensation—Payment for Transport and Termination of Communications 4.4.1 Initial Reaction of Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers and Competitive Local Exchange Carriers to Reciprocal Compensation 4.4.2 Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers' Reaction to Competitive Local Exchange Carriers' ISP-Minutes-Terminated Strategy 4.4.3 State Regulatory Concerns Regarding Competitive Local Exchange Carriers' ISP Strategy 4.4.4 Challenges to FCC's Authority and Rules Implementing the Telecommunications Act of 19964.4.5 February 1999—FCC's Declaratory RulingConclusion EndnotesPart II Embracing the Expanded Global Telecommunications MarketChapter 5 - The World Trade Organization and Its Telecommunications-Related Agreements 5.1 Historical International Trade—Goods, Not Services 5.1.1 International Trade Law 5.1.2 U.S. Trade Policy5.2 1948—The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 5.2.1 Structure and Operation of GATT 5.2.2 1970s and 1980s—Movement to Include Trade in Services in GATT 5.2.3 September 20, 1986—Opening of the GATT's Uruguay Round 5.2.4 GATT Principles 5.2.5 Drafts of the Services Framework5.3 December 1992—North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA 5.3.1 Telecommunications Equipment and Service 5.3.2 Licensing 5.3.3 Technical Standards 5.3.4 Basic versus Enhanced Telecommunications Services 5.3.5 Antitrust Issue 5.3.6 Intellectual Property Issues 5.3.7 Dispute Resolution5.4 March 1994—The Global Information Infrastructure (GII) Concept is Introduced 5.5 April 15, 1994—Uruguay Round Concluded, WTO Created in Marrakesh, Morocco 5.5.1 Volume 1—The Legal Texts 5.5.2 WTO Established and Absorbed GATT 5.5.3 Annex 1A—1994 GATT 5.5.4 Annex 1B—1994 GATS 5.5.5 Annex on Article II (Most-Favored Nations) Exceptions 5.5.6 April 1995— Annex on Telecommunications 5.5.7 Annex on Negotiations on Basic Telecommunications (NBT)5.6 April 24, 1996—Initial Results of the Negotiations on Basic Telecommunications 5.6.1 Negotiating Group on Basic Communications' Reference Paper to mthe Council for Trade in Services 5.6.2 Market Access Offers—Country Commitments to Include Basic Telecommunications 5.6.3 Agreement to Set Second Deadline for Continued Negotiations on Basic Telecommunications5.7 December 1996—Singapore Ministerial Conference 5.8 February 15, 1997—WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications 5.9 April 15, 1997—Fourth Protocol to GATS Adopted 5.9.1 November 1997Conclusion EndnotesChapter 6 - Participating in Global Telecommunications Trade: U.S. Import and Export Laws6.1 U.S. Trade Laws 6.1.1 Chapter 4—Tariff Act of 1930 6.1.2 Chapter 12—Trade Act of 1974 6.1.3 Chapter 13—Trade Agreements Act of 1979 6.1.4 Chapter 17—Negotiation and Implementation of Trade Agreements (The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988) 6.1.5 Chapter 19—Telecommunications Trade Act of 1988 6.1.6 Chapter 21—North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act of 19936.1.7 Chapter 22—Uruguay Round Trade Agreements6.2 U.S. Export Laws 6.2.1 Export Administration Act of 1979 (EAA) 6.2.2 Arms Export Control Act (AECA)6.3 Implementing Agencies 6.3.1 U.S. Trade Representative 6.3.2 International Trade Commission (ITC) 6.3.3 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Control (COCOM) 6.3.4 The Defense Technology Security Administration and the Office of Defense Trade Control 6.3.5 Department of Commerce6.4 What Is Exported? 6.4.1 Department of Commerce's Commodity Control List (CCL) 6.4.2 COCOM's International Industrial and Munitions Lists 6.4.3 Department of Defense's Munitions List 6.4.4 Classification of Re-exports 6.4.5 Licensing Requirements6.5 To Whom Is the Product Exported? 6.5.1 Trading with the Enemy Act (TWEA) and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) 6.5.2 Country Lists 6.5.3 Table of Denial Orders 6.5.4 Specially Designated Nationals List6.6 How Are Exports Conducted? 6.6.1 Anti-Boycott Amendments 6.6.2 Ribicoff Amendments to the Tax Reform Act 6.6.3 Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA)6.7 Record Retention Requirements 6.8 Penalties for Violations of Export Laws 6.8.1 Criminal Penalties 6.8.2 Civil Penalties6.9 Drafting International Trade Contracts 6.9.1 Government Regulations and Licensing Requirements 6.9.2 Use of Incoterms 6.9.3 Choice of Law and Jurisdiction—The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sales of Goods (CISG) 6.9.4 Payment 6.9.5 Currency To Be Used 6.9.6 Warranties 6.9.7 Unforeseeable Force majure Events 6.9.8 Dispute Resolution6.10 Establishing an Export Compliance Program Conclusion EndnotesChapter 7 - Licensing to Protect Telecommunications Intellectual Property7.1 U.S. Patent Law 7.2 U.S. Trademark Law 7.3 U.S. Trade Secret Law 7.4 U.S. Copyright Law 7.4.1 Exceptions to the Rights of Copyright Owners 7.4.2 Remedies for Infringement7.5 The Legality of Reverse Engineering and Restrictive License Clauses 7.5.1 "Only Means" of Access 7.5.2 Restrictive Clauses 7.5.3 Noncompete Clauses 7.5.4 Overreaching Clauses 7.5.5 Appropriate License Clauses7.6 The European Software Directive 7.6.1 Similarities of European Software Copyright Law to U.S. Copyright Law 7.6.2 Differences Between European Software Copyright Law and U.S. Copyright Law 7.6.3 Importance of the Similarities and Differences between European Software Law and U.S. Law to Software Developers7.7 "Must Include" Concepts for Software Licenses 7.8 Model License Conclusion EndnotesPart III Legal Issues With Advanced TechnologiesChapter 8 - Privacy8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Evolution of a Legal Right to Privacy 8.2.1 Privacy in the U.S. Constitution 8.2.2 Invasion of Privacy—Tort Law 8.2.3 Supreme Court Interpretations of Constitutional Amendments Recognizing a Right of Privacy 8.2.4 Balance of Personal Privacy with Other Considerations 8.2.5 Supreme Court Interpretation of Fourth Amendment Regarding Wiretapping8.3 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Communications in Transit and in Storage 8.3.1 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, Including the Wiretap Act of 1968 8.3.2 Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) of 1986 8.3.3 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994—The Digital Telephony Act8.4 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Personal Information in Government Databases 8.4.1 Federal Records Act of 1950 8.4.2 The Privacy Act of 1974 8.4.3 The Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act 8.4.4 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) of 19768.5 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Personal Bank and Financial Information8.5.1 Bank Records and Foreign Transactions Act (BRAFTA) of 1970 8.5.2 Right to Financial Privacy Act (RFPA) of 19888.6 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Private Databases from Searches and Seizures by Government Officials 8.6.1 Privacy Protection Act (PPA) of 1980 8.6.2 Court Cases Reviewing the Privacy Protection Act8.7 Federal Privacy Laws Prohibiting Illegal Access to Protected Computers 8.7.1 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1988 8.7.2 National Information Infrastructure Protection Act (NIIPA) of 19968.8 Federal Privacy Laws Prohibiting Unwanted and Harassing Communications 8.8.1 The Telephone Harassment Act of 1968 8.8.2 The Telephone Consumer Protection Act (TCPA) of 19918.9 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Information about Children 8.9.1 Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) of 1998 8.9.2 Child Online Protection Act (COPA) of 1998 8.9.3 Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA) of 1996 8.9.4 Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act (PCSPA) of 1998 8.9.5 Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) of 19998.10 State Privacy Laws 8.11 Collection, Use, and Dissemination of Personal Information without Permission 8.11.1 Cookies 8.11.2 Social Security Numbers—Identity Theft 8.11.3 Intellectual Property Theft 8.11.4 Monitoring by Browsers and ISPs 8.11.5 Purchased Information and Merged Databases8.12 Solutions to Collection and Use of Information without Permission 8.12.1 Proposed Legislation 8.12.2 Tort Action 8.12.3 Customer Caution 8.12.4 Industry Self-Regulation 8.12.5 Software to Detect and Delete Cookies and Spam 8.12.6 The Individual's Ability to Correct Inaccurate Information 8.12.7 Web Sites Offering Information on Privacy Protection8.13 Application of Privacy Law to Modern Technologies and Services 8.13.1 Email and Voicemail Systems 8.13.2 Cordless/Wireless Phones 8.13.3 Pagers8.14 International Privacy Concerns 8.14.1 European Community's Privacy Directive 8.14.2 Other NationsConclusion EndnotesChapter 9 - Encryption9.1 Encryption Technology 9.1.1 Forms of Encryption 9.1.2 Key Structure9.2 Early Use of Encryption in the United States 9.2.1 1930s-1950s: Encryption 9.2.2 1960s-1970s: Computers, Digitization, Multiplexing, Packetization and Encryption9.3 Private-Key Cryptosystems 9.3.1 1970 (1977): U.S. Data Encryption Standard (DES) 9.3.2 1995 (1999): Triple DES (3DES) 9.3.3 1997 (2001): Advanced Encryption System (AES)9.4 Public-Key: Cryptosystems 9.4.1 Mathematical Link Between Key Pairs 9.4.2 Digital Signatures 9.4.3 Key Servers 9.4.4 Session Keys 9.4.5 Well-Known Public-Key Cryptosystems9.5 Comparison of Private-Key and Public-Key Encryption Technologies 9.6 Law Enforcement and National Security Concerns with Public Use of Encryption 9.6.1 U.S. Laws Restricting the Export of Encryption Systems 9.6.2 U.S. Laws Restricting Private, Nonmilitary Use of Encryption Systems within the United States 9.6.3 Escrowed Encryption Standard (EES) and the Clipper and Capstone Chips 9.6.4 Opposition to the EES, Clipper Chip and Encryption Export Restrictions 9.6.5 Efforts to Relax Export Restrictions9.7 International Encryption Policies 9.7.1 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 9.7.2 1996-1998: Wassenaar Arrangement 9.7.3 United Kingdom 9.7.4 1997—European Commission Policy Paper on Encryption 9.7.5 United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)9.8 U.S. Reaction to International Views of Encryption 9.8.1 1996—Proposed Encrypted Communications Privacy Act of 1996 (S. 1587) 9.8.2 1996—Promotion of Commerce On-Line in the Digital Era (PRO-CODE) Act S. 1726 9.8.3 1996—National Research Council Report 9.8.4 1997—Proposed Security and Freedom through Encryption (SAFE) Act (HR 695) 9.8.5 1997—Secure Public Networks Act (S. 909) 9.8.6 1997—Amended SAFE Act9.9 Court Cases Reviewing the U.S. Encryption Export Restrictions 9.9.1 Bernstein Cases 9.9.2 Karn Decisions 9.9.3 Junger Decisions9.10 Changes in 2000 9.11 State Laws Concerning Encryption, Key Escrow, and Digital SignaturesConclusion EndnotesChapter 10 - Cyberlaw: Evolving Legal Issues with the Internet10.1 Commerce on the Internet 10.1.1 Uniform Commercial Code (U.C.C.) 10.1.2 End-User Contracts 10.1.3 International E-Commerce Efforts10.2 Jurisdiction 10.2.1 Jurisdiction in E-Commerce 10.2.2 Personal Jurisdiction in the Internet Age 10.2.3 International Jurisdiction10.3 Taxation 10.3.1 1967—National Bella Hess, Inc. v. Dept. of Revenue 10.3.2 1987—Proposed Modem Tax 10.3.3 1992—Quill Corp. v. Heitkamp 10.3.4 1996 to 1997—International Tax Discussions 10.3.5 1997—Proposed Internet Tax Freedom Act (ITFA) 10.3.6 1998—California Internet Tax Freedom Act 10.3.7 1998—Federal Internet Tax Freedom Act 10.3.8 National Tax Association Communications and Electronic Commerce Tax Project10.4 Trademark/Domain Names 10.4.1 Trademark Infringement Issues in the Internet Age 10.4.2 Actions by Companies to Protect Their Trademarks10.5 Copyright 10.5.1 Copyright Act of 1976 10.5.2 National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyright Works (CONTU) 10.5.3 1998—Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 10.5.4 Exclusive Rights 10.5.5 Impact of Fair Use on Copyright Contracts10.6 Trade Secrets 10.7 Defamation on the Internet 10.7.1 Morrison & Forester v. Wick, 94 F. Supp.2.d 1125 (D. Colo. 2000) 10.7.2 Lucent Technologies v. Johnson, Civ. No. 00-05668 (C. D. Cal. Sept. 12, 2000) 10.7.3 Lucent Technologies v. lucentsucks.com, 54 U.S.P. Q2d 1653 (E. D. Va. 2000)10.8 Liability of ISPs and Computer System Operators 10.8.1 Publishers 10.8.2 Distributors 10.8.3 Common Carriers 10.8.4 Claims on Web Sites 10.8.5 Digital Millenium Copyright Act10.9 Obscenity and Violence on the Internet 10.9.1 1996—The Communications Decency Act (CDA) 10.9.2 Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union (Reno II) 10.9.3 Child Online Protection Act (COPA) 10.9.4 American Civil Liberties Union v. Reno (Reno III) 10.9.5 Child Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) 10.9.6 State Laws10.10 Fraud on the Internet Conclusion EndnotesAppendix A - Key Documents and Decisions Concerning Local Number PortabilityAppendix B - Key Documents and Decisions Concerning Universal Service Appendix C - Key Documents and Decisions Concerning Access and Reciprocal Compensation Appendix D - Legal Instruments Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round Appendix E - Membership of the World Trade OrganizationAppendix F - Commitments and Most Favored Nation Exemptions Appendix G - Chapters within Title 19 of the U. S. Code Customs Duties Appendix H - State Privacy Laws Appendix I - Resources to Detect and Delete Cookies Appendix J - State Laws Concerning Encryption, Key Escrow, and Digital Signatures Index