For companies in and around the telecommunications field, the past few years have been a time of extraordinary change-technologically
and legally. The enacting of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 and the development of international trade agreements have fundamentally
changed the environment in which your business operates, creating risks, responsibilities, and opportunities that were not there before.
Until now, you'd have had a hard time finding a serious business book that offered any more than a cursory glance at this transformed
world. But at last there's a resource you can depend on for in-depth analysis and sound advice. Written in easy-to-understand language, Telecommunications Law in the Internet Age systematically examines the complex interrelationships of new laws, new technologies,
and new business practices, and equips you with the practical understanding you need to run your enterprise optimally within today's
legal boundaries.
Audience
telecommunications managers and staff, telecommunications attorneys and telecommunication students
Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction?The New Telecommunications Environment
1.1 New Transport Technologies
1.2 Converged Voice, Data, Video, and
Graphics Systems
1.3 Legal Changes
1.3.1 Breakup of the Bell System
1.3.2 The Internet
1.3.3 Changes in State Law
1.3.4 The
Telecommunications Act of 1996
1.3.5 World Trade Organization Agreement of 1997
1.4 International Telecommunications Equipment Markets
1.5 Technical Standards
1.6 What Is Communicated?
1.7 With Whom Are We Communicating?
1.8 Where Are We Communicating?
1.9 New
Local Access Options
1.10 Universal Service Fund Support of Internet Connections
1.11 Structural Changes
Conclusion
Endnotes
Part I The New Competitive Telecommunications Environment
Chapter 2 - Competition and Regulation?a Continuing Telecommunications
Cycle
2.1 Competition versus Regulation?Seeking a Balance
2.1.1 Rise of Trusts and Anticompetitive Behavior
2.1.2 Antitrust Law
and Regulation
2.1.3 Impact of Technological Changes
2.2 Early Competition the Communications Industry
2.2.1 Telegraph
2.2.2 International
Telegraph Communications
2.2.3 Equipment Manufacturing
2.2.4 Telephone
2.3 The Rise of the Bell System Dominance
2.3.1 Bell's
Patent Exclusivity and Return on Investment
2.3.2 AT&T Parent over Bell System and Western Union
2.3.3 AT&T's Refusal to Interconnect
with Competitors
2.4 Regulation of the Communications Industry
2.4.1 1912 Antitrust Case: Settled with 1913 Kingsbury Commitment
2.4.2 Universal Service
2.4.3 1921 The Willis-Graham Act
2.4.4 1934 Communications Act
2.4.5 1949 Antitrust Case: Settled with
1956 Consent Decree
2.4.6 1974 Antitrust Case: Settled with 1982 Modified Final Judgment
2.5 Technological Convergence and Renewed
Competition
2.5.1 Customer Premises Equipment
2.5.2 Microwave
2.5.3 Undersea Cables
2.5.4 Satellites
2.5.5 Computers
Conclusion
Endnotes
Chapter 3 - The Telecommunications Act of 1996
3.1 Purpose of the Telecommunications Act of 1996
3.1.1 Federal Action
3.1.2 States' Action
3.2 Structure and Organization of the 1996 Act?47 U.S.C. 151 et seq.
3.3. Definitions?Section 3 of the Telecommunications
Act of 1996
3.3.1 Three-Pronged Definition of Telecommunications
3.3.2 Definitions of Carriers
3.3.3 Definitions of Equipment
3.4 Provisions to Open the Competitive Market
3.4.1 Three Ways to Enter the New Competitive Market, 251(c)(2-4)
3.4.2 Implementation
of the 1996 Act, 251(d)(1)
3.4.3 Process for Writing Interconnection Agreements, 252
3.4.4 Post-Approval Issues
3.5 Duties and
Obligations of Carriers
3.5.1 All Telecommunications Carriers, 251(a)
3.5.2 Duties of Local Exchange Carriers, 251(b)
3.5.3
Duties of Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers, 251(c)
3.5.4 Duties of Bell Operating Companies, 271
3.6 Challenges to the Constitutionality
of Section 271 Requirements
3.6.1 Bill of Attainder
3.6.2 Separation of Powers
3.6.3 Equal Protection Clause
3.6.4 Bell Operating
Companies' Right to Free Speech
Conclusion
Endnotes
Chapter 4 - Outstanding Issues from the Telecommunications Act of 1996
4.1
Local Number Portability
4.1.1 Three Types of Number Portability
4.1.2 The North American Numbering Plan
4.1.3 Pre-1996 Number
Portability in the United States
4.1.4 Interim Methods
4.1.5 Long-Term Database-Dip Methods
4.1.6 Number Portability Regulation
4.1.7 Ongoing Issues
4.2 Universal Service
4.2.1 The Early Concept
4.2.2 Universal Service in the 1996 Act
4.3 Access
4.3.1
FCC's 1983 Access Charge Rules
4.3.2 Initial Challenge to FCC's Exemption of ISPs?ACTA's Internet Phone Petition to Designate ISPs
as Long-Distance Providers
4.3.3 Impact of the Telecommunications Act of 1996
4.4 Reciprocal Compensation?Payment for Transport and
Termination of Communications
4.4.1 Initial Reaction of Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers and Competitive Local Exchange Carriers to
Reciprocal Compensation
4.4.2 Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers' Reaction to Competitive Local Exchange Carriers' ISP-Minutes-Terminated
Strategy
4.4.3 State Regulatory Concerns Regarding Competitive Local Exchange Carriers' ISP Strategy
4.4.4 Challenges to FCC's Authority
and Rules Implementing the Telecommunications Act of 1996
4.4.5 February 1999?FCC's Declaratory Ruling
Conclusion
Endnotes
Part
II Embracing the Expanded Global Telecommunications Market
Chapter 5 - The World Trade Organization and Its Telecommunications-Related
Agreements
5.1 Historical International Trade?Goods, Not Services
5.1.1 International Trade Law
5.1.2 U.S. Trade Policy
5.2 1948?The
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
5.2.1 Structure and Operation of GATT
5.2.2 1970s and 1980s?Movement to Include Trade in Services
in GATT
5.2.3 September 20, 1986?Opening of the GATT's Uruguay Round
5.2.4 GATT Principles
5.2.5 Drafts of the Services Framework
5.3 December 1992?North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA
5.3.1 Telecommunications Equipment and Service
5.3.2 Licensing
5.3.3
Technical Standards
5.3.4 Basic versus Enhanced Telecommunications Services
5.3.5 Antitrust Issue
5.3.6 Intellectual Property Issues
5.3.7 Dispute Resolution
5.4 March 1994?The Global Information Infrastructure (GII) Concept is Introduced
5.5 April 15, 1994?Uruguay
Round Concluded, WTO Created in Marrakesh, Morocco
5.5.1 Volume 1?The Legal Texts
5.5.2 WTO Established and Absorbed GATT
5.5.3
Annex 1A?1994 GATT
5.5.4 Annex 1B?1994 GATS
5.5.5 Annex on Article II (Most-Favored Nations) Exceptions
5.5.6 April 1995? Annex
on Telecommunications
5.5.7 Annex on Negotiations on Basic Telecommunications (NBT)
5.6 April 24, 1996?Initial Results of the Negotiations
on Basic Telecommunications
5.6.1 Negotiating Group on Basic Communications' Reference Paper to mthe Council for Trade in Services
5.6.2 Market Access Offers?Country Commitments to Include Basic Telecommunications
5.6.3 Agreement to Set Second Deadline for Continued
Negotiations on Basic Telecommunications
5.7 December 1996?Singapore Ministerial Conference
5.8 February 15, 1997?WTO Agreement on
Basic Telecommunications
5.9 April 15, 1997?Fourth Protocol to GATS Adopted
5.9.1 November 1997
Conclusion
Endnotes
Chapter
6 - Participating in Global Telecommunications Trade: U.S. Import and Export Laws
6.1 U.S. Trade Laws
6.1.1 Chapter 4?Tariff Act
of 1930
6.1.2 Chapter 12?Trade Act of 1974
6.1.3 Chapter 13?Trade Agreements Act of 1979
6.1.4 Chapter 17?Negotiation and Implementation
of Trade Agreements (The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988)
6.1.5 Chapter 19?Telecommunications Trade Act of 1988
6.1.6
Chapter 21?North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act of 1993
6.1.7 Chapter 22?Uruguay Round Trade Agreements
6.2 U.S.
Export Laws
6.2.1 Export Administration Act of 1979 (EAA)
6.2.2 Arms Export Control Act (AECA)
6.3 Implementing Agencies
6.3.1
U.S. Trade Representative
6.3.2 International Trade Commission (ITC)
6.3.3 Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Control
(COCOM)
6.3.4 The Defense Technology Security Administration and the Office of Defense Trade Control
6.3.5 Department of Commerce
6.4 What Is Exported?
6.4.1 Department of Commerce's Commodity Control List (CCL)
6.4.2 COCOM's International Industrial and Munitions
Lists
6.4.3 Department of Defense's Munitions List
6.4.4 Classification of Re-exports
6.4.5 Licensing Requirements
6.5 To Whom
Is the Product Exported?
6.5.1 Trading with the Enemy Act (TWEA) and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA)
6.5.2
Country Lists
6.5.3 Table of Denial Orders
6.5.4 Specially Designated Nationals List
6.6 How Are Exports Conducted?
6.6.1 Anti-Boycott
Amendments
6.6.2 Ribicoff Amendments to the Tax Reform Act
6.6.3 Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA)
6.7 Record Retention Requirements
6.8 Penalties for Violations of Export Laws
6.8.1 Criminal Penalties
6.8.2 Civil Penalties
6.9 Drafting International Trade Contracts
6.9.1 Government Regulations and Licensing Requirements
6.9.2 Use of Incoterms
6.9.3 Choice of Law and Jurisdiction?The United
Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sales of Goods (CISG)
6.9.4 Payment
6.9.5 Currency To Be Used
6.9.6 Warranties
6.9.7 Unforeseeable Force majure Events
6.9.8 Dispute Resolution
6.10 Establishing an Export Compliance Program
Conclusion
Endnotes
Chapter 7 - Licensing to Protect Telecommunications Intellectual Property
7.1 U.S. Patent Law
7.2 U.S. Trademark Law
7.3 U.S.
Trade Secret Law
7.4 U.S. Copyright Law
7.4.1 Exceptions to the Rights of Copyright Owners
7.4.2 Remedies for Infringement
7.5
The Legality of Reverse Engineering and Restrictive License Clauses
7.5.1 "Only Means" of Access
7.5.2 Restrictive Clauses
7.5.3
Noncompete Clauses
7.5.4 Overreaching Clauses
7.5.5 Appropriate License Clauses
7.6 The European Software Directive
7.6.1 Similarities
of European Software Copyright Law to U.S. Copyright Law
7.6.2 Differences Between European Software Copyright Law and U.S. Copyright
Law
7.6.3 Importance of the Similarities and Differences between European Software Law and U.S. Law to Software Developers
7.7 "Must
Include" Concepts for Software Licenses
7.8 Model License
Conclusion
Endnotes
Part III Legal Issues With Advanced Technologies
Chapter 8 - Privacy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Evolution of a Legal Right to Privacy
8.2.1 Privacy in the U.S. Constitution
8.2.2
Invasion of Privacy?Tort Law
8.2.3 Supreme Court Interpretations of Constitutional Amendments Recognizing a Right of Privacy
8.2.4
Balance of Personal Privacy with Other Considerations
8.2.5 Supreme Court Interpretation of Fourth Amendment Regarding Wiretapping
8.3 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Communications in Transit and in Storage
8.3.1 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968,
Including the Wiretap Act of 1968
8.3.2 Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) of 1986
8.3.3 Communications Assistance for
Law Enforcement Act of 1994?The Digital Telephony Act
8.4 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Personal Information in Government Databases
8.4.1 Federal Records Act of 1950
8.4.2 The Privacy Act of 1974
8.4.3 The Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act
8.4.4
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) of 1976
8.5 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Personal Bank and Financial Information
8.5.1 Bank Records
and Foreign Transactions Act (BRAFTA) of 1970
8.5.2 Right to Financial Privacy Act (RFPA) of 1988
8.6 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting
Private Databases from Searches and Seizures by Government Officials
8.6.1 Privacy Protection Act (PPA) of 1980
8.6.2 Court Cases
Reviewing the Privacy Protection Act
8.7 Federal Privacy Laws Prohibiting Illegal Access to Protected Computers
8.7.1 Computer Fraud
and Abuse Act of 1988
8.7.2 National Information Infrastructure Protection Act (NIIPA) of 1996
8.8 Federal Privacy Laws Prohibiting
Unwanted and Harassing Communications
8.8.1 The Telephone Harassment Act of 1968
8.8.2 The Telephone Consumer Protection Act (TCPA)
of 1991
8.9 Federal Privacy Laws Protecting Information about Children
8.9.1 Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) of 1998
8.9.2 Child Online Protection Act (COPA) of 1998
8.9.3 Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA) of 1996
8.9.4 Protection of Children
from Sexual Predators Act (PCSPA) of 1998
8.9.5 Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) of 1999
8.10 State Privacy Laws
8.11 Collection,
Use, and Dissemination of Personal Information without Permission
8.11.1 Cookies
8.11.2 Social Security Numbers?Identity Theft
8.11.3 Intellectual Property Theft
8.11.4 Monitoring by Browsers and ISPs
8.11.5 Purchased Information and Merged Databases
8.12
Solutions to Collection and Use of Information without Permission
8.12.1 Proposed Legislation
8.12.2 Tort Action
8.12.3 Customer
Caution
8.12.4 Industry Self-Regulation
8.12.5 Software to Detect and Delete Cookies and Spam
8.12.6 The Individual's Ability to
Correct Inaccurate Information
8.12.7 Web Sites Offering Information on Privacy Protection
8.13 Application of Privacy Law to Modern
Technologies and Services
8.13.1 Email and Voicemail Systems
8.13.2 Cordless/Wireless Phones
8.13.3 Pagers
8.14 International
Privacy Concerns
8.14.1 European Community's Privacy Directive
8.14.2 Other Nations
Conclusion
Endnotes
Chapter 9 - Encryption
9.1 Encryption Technology
9.1.1 Forms of Encryption
9.1.2 Key Structure
9.2 Early Use of Encryption in the United States
9.2.1
1930s-1950s: Encryption
9.2.2 1960s-1970s: Computers, Digitization, Multiplexing, Packetization and Encryption
9.3 Private-Key Cryptosystems
9.3.1 1970 (1977): U.S. Data Encryption Standard (DES)
9.3.2 1995 (1999): Triple DES (3DES)
9.3.3 1997 (2001): Advanced Encryption
System (AES)
9.4 Public-Key: Cryptosystems
9.4.1 Mathematical Link Between Key Pairs
9.4.2 Digital Signatures
9.4.3 Key Servers
9.4.4 Session Keys
9.4.5 Well-Known Public-Key Cryptosystems
9.5 Comparison of Private-Key and Public-Key Encryption Technologies
9.6 Law Enforcement and National Security Concerns with Public Use of Encryption
9.6.1 U.S. Laws Restricting the Export of Encryption
Systems
9.6.2 U.S. Laws Restricting Private, Nonmilitary Use of Encryption Systems within the United States
9.6.3 Escrowed Encryption
Standard (EES) and the Clipper and Capstone Chips
9.6.4 Opposition to the EES, Clipper Chip and Encryption Export Restrictions
9.6.5
Efforts to Relax Export Restrictions
9.7 International Encryption Policies
9.7.1 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)
9.7.2 1996-1998: Wassenaar Arrangement
9.7.3 United Kingdom
9.7.4 1997?European Commission Policy Paper on Encryption
9.7.5 United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)
9.8 U.S. Reaction to International Views of Encryption
9.8.1
1996?Proposed Encrypted Communications Privacy Act of 1996 (S. 1587)
9.8.2 1996?Promotion of Commerce On-Line in the Digital Era (PRO-CODE)
Act S. 1726
9.8.3 1996?National Research Council Report
9.8.4 1997?Proposed Security and Freedom through Encryption (SAFE) Act (HR
695)
9.8.5 1997?Secure Public Networks Act (S. 909)
9.8.6 1997?Amended SAFE Act
9.9 Court Cases Reviewing the U.S. Encryption Export
Restrictions
9.9.1 Bernstein Cases
9.9.2 Karn Decisions
9.9.3 Junger Decisions
9.10 Changes in 2000
9.11 State Laws Concerning
Encryption, Key Escrow, and Digital Signatures
Conclusion
Endnotes
Chapter 10 - Cyberlaw: Evolving Legal Issues with the Internet
10.1 Commerce on the Internet
10.1.1 Uniform Commercial Code (U.C.C.)
10.1.2 End-User Contracts
10.1.3 International E-Commerce
Efforts
10.2 Jurisdiction
10.2.1 Jurisdiction in E-Commerce
10.2.2 Personal Jurisdiction in the Internet Age
10.2.3 International
Jurisdiction
10.3 Taxation
10.3.1 1967?National Bella Hess, Inc. v. Dept. of Revenue
10.3.2 1987?Proposed Modem Tax
10.3.3 1992?Quill
Corp. v. Heitkamp
10.3.4 1996 to 1997?International Tax Discussions
10.3.5 1997?Proposed Internet Tax Freedom Act (ITFA)
10.3.6
1998?California Internet Tax Freedom Act
10.3.7 1998?Federal Internet Tax Freedom Act
10.3.8 National Tax Association Communications
and Electronic Commerce Tax Project
10.4 Trademark/Domain Names
10.4.1 Trademark Infringement Issues in the Internet Age
10.4.2
Actions by Companies to Protect Their Trademarks
10.5 Copyright
10.5.1 Copyright Act of 1976
10.5.2 National Commission on New Technological
Uses of Copyright Works (CONTU)
10.5.3 1998?Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)
10.5.4 Exclusive Rights
10.5.5 Impact of Fair
Use on Copyright Contracts
10.6 Trade Secrets
10.7 Defamation on the Internet
10.7.1 Morrison & Forester v. Wick, 94 F. Supp.2.d
1125 (D. Colo. 2000)
10.7.2 Lucent Technologies v. Johnson, Civ. No. 00-05668 (C. D. Cal. Sept. 12, 2000)
10.7.3 Lucent Technologies
v. lucentsucks.com, 54 U.S.P. Q2d 1653 (E. D. Va. 2000)
10.8 Liability of ISPs and Computer System Operators
10.8.1 Publishers
10.8.2
Distributors
10.8.3 Common Carriers
10.8.4 Claims on Web Sites
10.8.5 Digital Millenium Copyright Act
10.9 Obscenity and Violence
on the Internet
10.9.1 1996?The Communications Decency Act (CDA)
10.9.2 Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union (Reno II)
10.9.3
Child Online Protection Act (COPA)
10.9.4 American Civil Liberties Union v. Reno (Reno III)
10.9.5 Child Online Privacy Protection
Act (COPPA)
10.9.6 State Laws
10.10 Fraud on the Internet
Conclusion
Endnotes
Appendix A - Key Documents and Decisions Concerning
Local Number Portability
Appendix B - Key Documents and Decisions Concerning Universal Service
Appendix C - Key Documents and Decisions
Concerning Access and Reciprocal Compensation
Appendix D - Legal Instruments Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round
Appendix
E - Membership of the World Trade Organization
Appendix F - Commitments and Most Favored Nation Exemptions
Appendix G - Chapters
within Title 19 of the U. S. Code Customs Duties
Appendix H - State Privacy Laws
Appendix I - Resources to Detect and Delete Cookies
Appendix J - State Laws Concerning Encryption, Key Escrow, and Digital Signatures
Index
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