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By Gary Musgrave Ph.D Axel Larsen Tommaso Sgobba
Description Progress in space safety lies in the acceptance of safety design and engineering as an integral part of the design and implementation
process for new space systems. Safety must be seen as the principle design driver of utmost importance from the outset of the design
process, which is only achieved through a culture change that moves all stakeholders toward front-end loaded safety concepts. This approach
entails a common understanding and mastering of basic principles of safety design for space systems at all levels of the program organisation.
Fully supported by the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS), written by the leading figures in the
industry, with frontline experience from projects ranging from the Apollo missions, Skylab, the Space Shuttle and the International Space
Station, this book provides a comprehensive reference for aerospace engineers in industry.
It addresses each of the key elements that
impact on space systems safety, including: the space environment (natural and induced); human physiology in space; human rating factors;
emergency capabilities; launch propellants and oxidizer systems; life support systems; battery and fuel cell safety; nuclear power generators
(NPG) safety; habitat activities; fire protection; safety-critical software development; collision avoidance systems design; operations
and on-orbit maintenance.
Audience
Aerospace engineers in industry, space agencies and consulting firms, and also be suitable for use as a reference for senior and graduate
level courses. In terms of sales the market is expected to be aerospace and high technology companies, space agencies, consulting firms
and the academic market in that order of importance
Contents About the Editors
Foreword
Preface
Contributors
1 Introduction to Space Safety
1.1 NASA and Safety
1.2 Definition of Safety and Risk
1.3
Managing Safety and Risk
1.4 The Book
References
2 The Space Environment: Natural and Induced
2.1 The Atmosphere
2.1.1 Composition
2.1.2
Atomic Oxygen
2.1.3 The Ionosphere
2.2 Orbital Debris and Meteoroids
2.2.1 Orbital Debris
2.2.2 Meteoroids
2.3 Microgravity
2.3.1 Microgravity
Defined
2.3.2 Methods of Attainment
2.3.3 Effects on Biological Processes and Astronaut Health
2.3.4 Unique Aspects of Travel to the
Moon and Planetary Bodies
Recommended Reading
2.4 Acoustics
2.4.1 Acoustics Safety Issues
2.4.2 Acoustic Requirements
2.4.3 Compliance
and Verification
2.4.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
Recommended Reading
2.5 Radiation
2.5.1 Ionizing Radiation
2.5.2 Radio-Frequency
Radiation
2.6 Natural and Induced Thermal Environments
2.6.1 Introduction to the Thermal Environment
2.6.2 Spacecraft Heat0Transfer Considerations
2.6.3 The Natural Thermal Environment
2.6.4 The Induced Thermal Environment
2.6.5 Other Lunar and Planetary Environment Considerations
2.7 Combined Environmental Effects
2.7.1 Introduction to Environmental Effects
2.7.2 Combined Environments
2.7.3 Combined Effects
2.7.4
Ground Testing for Space Simulation
References
3 Overview of Bioastronautics
3.1 Space Physiology
3.1.1 Muscular System
3.1.2 Skeletal
System
3.1.3 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems
3.1.4 Neurovestibular System
3.1.5 Radiation
3.1.6 Nutrition
3.1.7 Immune System
3.1.8 Extravehicular Activity
3.2 Short- and Long-Duration Mission Effects
3.2.1 Muscular System
3.2.2 Skeletal System
3.2.3 Cardiovascular
and Respiratory Systems
3.2.4 Neurovestibular System
3.2.5 Radiation
3.2.6 Nutrition
3.2.7 Immune System
3.2.8 Extravehicular Activity
3.3 Health Maintenance
3.3.1 Preflight Preparation
3.3.2 In-Flight Measures
3.3.3 In-Flight Medical Monitoring
3.3.4 Postflight Recovery
3.4 Crew Survival
3.4.1 Overview of Health Threats in Spaceflight
3.4.2 Early Work
3.4.3 Crew Survival on the Launch Pad, at Launch,
and during Ascent
3.4.4 On-Orbit Safe Haven and Crew Transfer
3.4.5 Entry, Landing, and Postlanding
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Basic
Principles of Space Safety
4.1 The Cause of Accidents
4.2 Principles and Methods
4.2.1 Hazard Elimination and Limitation
4.2.2 Barriers
and Interlocks
4.2.3 Fail-Safe Design
4.2.4 Failure and Risk Minimization
4.2.5 Monitoring, Recovery, and Escape
4.2.6 Crew Survival
Systems
4.3 The Safety Review Process
4.3.1 Safety Requirements
4.3.2 The Safety Panels
4.3.3 The Safety Reviews
4.3.4 Nonconformances
References
5 Human-Rating Concepts
5.1 Human Rating Defined
5.1.1 Human-Rated Systems
5.1.2 The NASA Human-Rating and Process
5.1.3 The
Human-Rating Plan
5.1.4 The NASA Human-Rating Certification Process
5.1.5 Human Rating in Commercial Human Spaceflight
5.2 Human-Rating
Requirements and Approaches
5.2.1 Key Human-Rating Technical Requirements
5.2.2 Programmatic Requirements
5.2.3 Test Requirements
5.2.4
Data Requirements
References
6 Life-Support Systems Safety
6.1 Atmospheric Conditioning and Control
6.1.1 Monitoring Is the Key to Control
6.1.2 Atmospheric Conditioning
6.1.3 Carbon Dioxide Removal
6.2 Trace-Contaminant Control
6.2.1 Of Tight Buildings and Spacecraft Cabins
6.2.2 Trace-Contaminant Control Methodology
6.2.3 Trace-Contaminant Control Design Considerations
6.3 Assessment of Water Quality in
the Spacecraft Environment:
Mitigating Health and Safety Concerns
6.3.1 Scope of Water Resources Relevant to Spaceflight
6.3.2 Spacecraft
Water Quality and the Risk-Assessment Paradigm
6.3.3 Water-Quality Monitoring
6.3.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
6.4 Waste Management
6.5 Summary of Life-Support Systems
References
7 Emergency Systems
7.1 Space Rescue
7.1.1 Legal and Diplomatic Basis
7.1.2 The Need for
Rescue Capability
7.1.3 Rescue Modes and Probabilities
7.1.4 Hazards in the Different Phases of Flight
7.1.5 Historic Distribution of
Failures
7.1.6 Historic Rescue Systems
7.1.7 Space Rescue Is Primarily Self-Rescue
7.1.8 Limitations of Ground-Based Rescue
7.1.9 The
Crew Return Vehicle as a Study in Space Rescue
7.1.10 Safe Haven
7.1.11 Conclusions
7.2 Personal Protective Equipment
7.2.1 Purpose of
Personal Protective Equipment
7.2.2 Types of Personal Protective Equipment
References
8 Collision Avoidance Systems
8.1 Docking Systems
and Operations
8.1.1 Docking Systems as a Means for Spacecraft Orbital Mating
8.1.2 Design Approaches Ensuring Docking Safety and Reliability
8.1.3 Design Features Ensuring the Safety and Reliability of
Russian Docking Systems
8.1.4 Analyses and Tests Performed for the Verification
of Safety and
Reliability of Russian Docking Systems
8.2 Descent and Landing Systems
8.2.1 Parachute Systems
8.2.2 Known Parachute Anomolies
and Lessons Learned
References
9 Robotic-Systems Safety
9.1 Generic Robotic Systems
9.1.1 Controller and Operator Interface
9.1.2 Arms
and Joints
9.1.3 Drive System
9.1.4 Sensors
9.1.5 End Effector
9.2 Space Robotics Overview
9.3 Identification of Hazards and Their Causes
9.3.1 Electrical and Electromechanical Malfunctions
9.3.2 Mechanical and Structural Failures
9.3.3 Failure in the Control Path
9.3.4
Operator Error
9.3.5 Other Hazards
9.4 Hazard Mitigation in Design
9.4.1 Electrical and Mechanical Design and Redundancy
9.4.2 Operator
Error
9.4.3 System Health Checks
9.4.4 Emergency Motion Arrest
9.4.5 Proximity Operations
9.4.6 Built-in Test
9.4.7 Safety Algorithms
9.5 Hazard Mitigation through Training
9.6 Hazard Mitigation for Operations
9.7 Case Study: Understanding Canadarm2 and Space Safety
9.7.1 The Canadarm2
9.7.2 Cameras
9.7.3 Force Moment Sensor
9.7.4 Training
9.7.5 Hazard Concerns and Associated Hazard Mitigation
9.8
Summary
References
10 Meteoroid and Debris Protection
10.1 Risk-Control Measures
10.1.1 Maneuvering
10.1.2 Shielding
10.2 Emergency-Repair
Considerations for Spacecraft Pressure-Wall Damage
10.2.1 Balanced Mitigation of Program Risks
10.2.2 Leak-Location System and Operational-Design
Considerations
10.2.3 Ability to Access the Damaged Area
10.2.4 Kit Design and Certification Considerations (1 Is Too Many,
100 Are
Not Enough)
10.2.5 Recertification of the Repaired Pressure Compartment for
Use by the Crew
References
11 Noise-Control Design
11.1
Introduction
11.2 Noise-Control Plan
11.2.1 Noise-Control Strategy
11.2.2 Acoustic Analysis
11.2.3 Testing and Verification
11.3 Noise-Control
Design Applications
11.3.1 Noise Control at the Source
11.3.2 Path-Noise Control
11.3.3 Noise Control in the Receiving Space
11.3.4 Postdesign
Noise Mitigation
11.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
Recommended Reading
References
12 Materials Safety
12.1 Toxic Off-Gassing
12.1.1
Materials Off-Gassing Controls
12.1.2 Materials Testing
12.1.3 Spacecraft Module Testing
12.2 Stress-Corrosion Cracking
12.2.1 What Is
Stress-Corrosion Cracking?
12.2.2 Prevention of Stress-Corrosion Cracking
12.2.3 Testing Materials for Stress-Corrosion Cracking
12.2.4
Design for Stress-Corrosion Cracking
12.4.5 Requirements for Spacecraft Hardware
12.4.6 Stress-Corrosion Cracking in Propulsion Systems
12.3 Conclusions
References
13 Oxygen-Systems Safety
13.1 Oxygen Pressure System Design
13.1.1 Introduction
13.1.2 Design Approach
13.1.3
Oxygen-Compatibility Assessment Process
13.2 Oxygen Generators
13.2.1 Electrochemical Systems for Oxygen Production
13.2.2 Solid Fuel
Oxygen Generators (Oxygen Candles)
References
14 Avionics Safety
14.1 Introduction to Avionics Safety
14.2 Electrical Grounding and Electrical
Bonding
14.2.1 Defining Characteristics of an Electrical-Ground Connection
14.2.2 Control of Electric Current
14.2.3 Electrical Grounds
Can Be Signal-Return Paths
14.2.4 Where and How Electrical Grounds Should Be Connected
14.2.5 Defining Characteristics of an Electrical
Bond
14.2.6 Types of Electrical Bonds
14.2.7 Electrical-Bond Considerations for Dissimilar Metals
14.2.8 Electrical-Ground and -Bond
Connections for Shields
Recommended Reading
14.3 Safety-Critical Computer Control
14.3.1 Partial Computer Control
14.3.2 Total Computer
Control: Fail Safe
14.4 Circuit Protection: Fusing
14.4.1 Circuit-Protection Methods
14.4.2 Circuit Protectors
14.4.3 Design Guidance
14.5 Electrostatic-Discharge Control
14.5.1 Fundamentals
14.5.2 Various Levels of Electrostatic Discharge Concern
14.6 Arc Tracking
14.6.1
A New Failure Mode
14.6.2 Characteristics of Arc Tracking
14.6.3 Likelihood of an Arc-Tracking Event
14.6.4 Prevention of Arc Tracking
14.6.5 Verification of Protection and Management of Hazards
14.6.6 Summary
14.7 Corona Control in High-Voltage Systems
14.7.1 Associated
Environments
14.7.2 Design Criteria
14.7.3 Verification and Testing
14.8 Extravehicular-Activity Considerations
14.8.1 Displays and Indicators
Used in Space
14.8.2 Mating and Demating of Powered Connectors
14.8.3 Single-Strand Melting Points
14.8.4 Battery Removal and Installation
14.8.5 Computer or Operational Control of Inhibits
14.9 Spacecraft Electromagnetic-Interference and Electromagnetic-
Compatibility Control
14.9.1 Electromagnetic-Compatibility Needs for Space Applications
14.9.2 Basic Electromagnetic-Compatibility Interactions and a
Safety
Margin
14.9.3 Mission-Driven Electromagnetic-Interference Design:
The Case for Grounding
14.9.4 Electromagnetic-Compatibility Program
for Spacecraft
14.10 Design and Testing of Safety-Critical Circuits
14.10.1 Safety-Critical Circuits: Conducted Mode
14.10.2 Safety-Critical
Circuits: Radiated Mode
14.11 Electrical Hazards
14.11.1 Introduction
14.11.2 Electrical Shock
14.11.3 Physiological Considerations
14.11.4
Electrical Hazard Classification
14.11.5 Leakage Current
14.11.6 Bioinstrumentation
14.11.7 Electrical-Hazard Controls
14.11.8 Verification
of Electrical-Hazard Controls
14.11.9 Electrical-Safety Design Considerations
14.12 Avionics Lessons Learned
14.12.1 Electronic Design
14.12.2 Physical Design
14.12.3 Materials and Sources
14.12.4 Damage Avoidance
14.12.5 System Aspects
References
15 Software-System Safety
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Software Safety Problem
15.2.1 System Accidents
15.2.2 The Power and Limitations of Abstraction from Physical
Design
15.2.3 Reliability versus Safety for Software
15.2.4 Inadequate System Engineering
15.2.5 Characteristics of Embedded Software
15.3 Current Practice
15.3.1 System Safety
15.4 Best Practice
15.4.1 Management of Software-Intensive, Safety-Critical Projects
15.4.2
Basic System Safety-Engineering Practices and Their
Implications for Software-Intensive Systems
15.4.3 Specifications
15.4.4 Requirements
Analysis
15.4.5 Model-Based Software Engineering and Software Reuse
15.4.6 Software Architecture
15.4.7 Software Design
15.4.8 Design
of Human-Computer Interaction
15.4.9 Software Reviews
15.4.10 Verification and Assurance
15.4.11 Operations
15.5 Summary
References
16
Battery Safety
16.1 Introduction
16.2 General Design and Safety Guidelines
16.3 Battery Types
16.4 Battery Models
16.5 Hazard and Toxicity
Categorization
16.6 Battery Chemistry
16.6.1 Alkaline Batteries
16.6.2 Lithium Batteries
16.6.3 Silver Zinc Batteries
16.6.4 Lead Acid
Batteries
16.6.5 Nickel Cadmium Batteries
16.6.6 Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries
16.6.7 Nickel Hydrogen Batteries
16.6.8 Lithium-Ion Batteries
16.7 Storage, Transportation, and Handling
References
17 Mechanical-Systems Safety
17.1 Safety Factors
17.1.1 Types of Safety Factors
17.1.2 Safety Factors Typical of Human-Rated Space Programs
17.1.3 Things That Influence the Choice of Safety Factors
17.2 Spacecraft
Structures
17.2.1 Mechanical Requirements
17.2.2 Space-Mission Environment and Mechanical Loads
17.2.3 Project Overview: Successive Designs
and Iterative
Verification of Structural Requirements
17.2.4 Analytical Evaluations
17.2.5 Structural Test Verification
17.2.6 Spacecraft
Structural-Model Philosophy
17.2.7 Materials and Processes
17.2.8 Manufacturing of Spacecraft Structures
17.3 Fracture Control
17.3.1
Basic Requirements
17.3.2 Implementation
17.3.3 Summary
17.4 Pressure Vessels, Lines, and Fittings
17.4.1 Pressure Vessels
17.4.2 Lines
and Fittings
17.4.3 Space Pressure-Systems Standards
17.4.4 Summary
17.5 Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels
17.5.1 The Composite
Overwrapped Pressure-Vessel System
17.5.2 Monolithic Metallic Pressure-Vessel Failure Modes
17.5.3 Composite Overwrapped Pressure-Vessel
Failure Modes
17.5.4 Composite Overwrapped Pressure-Vessel Impact Sensitivity
17.5.5 Summary
17.6 Structural Design of Glass and Ceramic
Components for
Space-System Safety
17.6.1 Strength Characteristics of Glass and Ceramics
17.6.2 Defining Loads and Environments
17.6.3
Design Factors
17.6.4 Meeting Life Requirements with Glass and Ceramics
17.7 Safety Critical Mechanisms
17.7.1 Designing for Failure
Tolerance
17.7.2 Design and Verification of Safety-Critical Mechanisms
17.7.3 Reduced Failure Tolerance
17.7.4 Review of Safety-Critical
Mechanisms
References
18 Containment of Hazardous Materials
18.1 Toxic Materials
18.1.1 Fundamentals of Toxicology
18.1.2 Toxicological
Risks to Air Quality in Spacecraft
18.1.3 Risk-Management Strategies
18.2 Biohazardous Materials
18.2.1 Microbiological Risks Associated
with Spaceflight
18.2.2 Risk-Mitigation Approaches
18.2.3 Major Spaceflight-Specific Microbiological Risks
18.3 Shatterable Materials
18.3.1 Shatterable Materials in a Habitable Compartment
18.3.2 Program Implementation
18.3.3 Containment Concepts for Internal Equipment
18.3.4 Containment Concepts for Exterior Equipment
18.3.5 General Comments about Working with Shatterable Materials
18.4 Containment
Design Approach
18.4.1 Fault Tolerance
18.4.2 Design for Minimum Risk
18.5 Containment Design Methods
18.5.1 Containment Environments
18.5.2 Design of Containment Systems
18.6 Safety Controls
18.6.1 Proper Design
18.6.2 Materials Selection
18.6.3 Materials Compatibility
18.6.4 Proper Workmanship
18.6.5 Proper Loading or Filling
18.6.6 Fracture Control
18.7 Safety Verifications
18.7.1 Strength Analysis
18.7.2 Qualification Tests
18.7.3 Acceptance Tests
18.7.4 Proof-Tests
18.7.5 Qualification of Procedures
18.8 Conclusions
References
19 Failure-Tolerance Design
19.1 Safe
19.1.1 Order of Precedence
19.2 Hazard
19.2.1 Hazard Controls
19.2.2 Design to Tolerate Failures
19.3 Hazardous Functions
19.3.1 Must-Not-Work Hazardous Function
19.3.2 Must-Work Hazardous Function
19.4 Design for Minimum Risk
19.5
Conclusions
References
20 Propellant-Systems Safety
20.1 Solid-Propulsion Systems Safety
20.1.1 Solid Propellants
20.1.2 Solid-Propellant
Systems for Space Applications
20.1.3 Safety Hazards
20.1.4 Handling, Transport, and Storage
20.1.5 Inadvertent Ignition
20.1.6 Safe
Ignition-Systems Design
20.1.7 Conclusions
20.2 Liquid-Propellant Propulsion-Systems Safety
20.2.1 Planning
20.2.2 Containment Integrity
20.2.3 Thermal Control
20.2.4 Materials Compatibility
20.2.5 Contamination Control
20.2.6 Environmental Considerations
20.2.7 Engine
and Thruster Firing Inhibits
20.2.8 Heightened Risk (Risk Creep)
20.2.9 Instrumentation and Telemetry Data
20.2.10 End-to-End Integrated
Instrumentation, Controls and
Redundancy Verification
20.2.11 Qualification
20.2.12 Total Quality Management (ISO 9001 or Equivalent)
20.2.13 Preservicing Integrity Verification
20.2.14 Propellants Servicing
20.2.15 Conclusions
20.3 Hypergolic Propellants
20.3.1 Materials
Compatibility
20.3.2 Material Degradation
20.3.3 Hypergolic-Propellant Degradation
20.4 Propellant Fire
20.4.1 Hydrazine and Monomethylhydrazine
Vapor
20.4.2 Liquid Hydrazine and Monomethylhydrazine
20.4.3 Hydrazine and Monomethylhydrazine Mists,
Droplets, and Sprays
References
21 Pyrotechnic Safety
21.1 Pyrotechnic Devices
21.1.1 Explosives
21.1.2 Initiators
21.2 Electroexplosive Devices
21.2.1 Safe Handling
of Electroexplosive Devices
21.2.2 Designing for Safe Electroexplosive-Device Operation
21.2.3 Pyrotechnic Safety of Mechanically Initiated
Explosive Devices
References
22 Extravehicular-Activity Safety
22.1 Extravehicular-Activity Environment
22.1.1 Definitions
22.1.2 Extravehicular-Activity
Space Suit
22.1.3 Sensory Degradation
22.1.4 Maneuvering and Weightlessness
22.1.5 Glove Restrictions
22.1.6 Crew Fatigue
22.1.7 Thermal
Environment
22.1.8 Extravehicular-Activity Tools
22.2 Suit Hazards
22.2.1 Inadvertent Contact Hazards
22.2.2 Area of Effect Hazards
22.3
Crew Hazards
22.3.1 Contamination of the Habitable Environment
22.3.2 Thermal Extremes
22.3.3 Lasers
22.3.4 Electrical Shock and Molten
Metal
22.3.5 Entrapment
22.3.6 Emergency Ingress
22.3.7 Collision
22.3.8 Inadvertent Loss of Crew
22.4 Conclusions
References
23 Emergency,
Caution, and Warning System
23.1 System Overview
23.2 Historic NASA Emergency, Caution, and Warning Systems
23.3 Emergency, Caution,
and Warning System Measures
23.3.1 Event-Classification Measures
23.3.2 Sensor Measures
23.3.3 Data-System Measures
23.3.4 Annunciation
Measures
23.4 Failure Isolation and Recovery
References
24 Laser Safety
24.1 Background
24.1.1 Optical Spectrum
24.1.2 Biological Effects
24.2 Lasers Characteristics
24.2.1 Laser Principles
24.2.2 Laser Types
24.3 Laser Standards
24.3.1 NASA Johnson Space Center Requirements
24.3.2 ANSI Standard Z136-1
24.3.3 Russian Standard
24.4 Lasers Used in Space
24.4.1 Radars
24.4.2 Illumination
24.4.3 Sensors
24.5 Design
Considerations for Laser Safety
24.5.1 Ground Testing
24.5.2 Unique Space Environment
24.6 Conclusions
References
25 Crew Training Safety:
An Integrated Process
25.1 Training the Crew for Safety
25.1.1 Typical Training Flow
25.1.2 Principles of Safety Training for the Different
Training Phases
25.1.3 Specific Safety Training for Different
Equipment Categories
25.1.4 Safety Training for Different Operations Categories
25.2 Safety during Training
25.2.1 Overview
25.2.2 Training-, Test-, or Baseline-Data Collection Model versus
Flight Model: Type, Fidelity,
Source, Origin, and Category
25.2.3 Training Environments and Facilities
25.2.4 Training Models, Test Models, and Safety Requirements
25.2.5 Training-Model, Test-Model, and Baseline-Data Collection
Equipment-Utilization Requirements
25.2.6 Qualification and Certification
of Training Personnel
25.2.7 Training- and Test-Model Documentation
25.3 Training Development and Validation Process
25.3.1 The Training
Development Process
25.3.2 Training-Review Process
25.3.3 The Role of Safety in the Training Development and
Validation Processes
25.3.4
Feedback to the Safety Community from the Training Development and
Validation Processes
25.4 Conclusion
References
26 Safety Considerations
in the Ground Environment
26.1 A Word about Ground Support Equipment
26.2 Documentation and Reviews
26.3 Roles and Responsibilities
26.4
Contingency Planning
26.5 Failure Tolerance
26.6 Training
26.7 Hazardous Operations
26.8 Tools
26.9 Human Factors
26.10 Biological Systems
and Materials
26.11 Electrical
26.12 Radiation
26.13 Pressure Systems
26.14 Ordinance
26.15 Mechanical and Eelectromechanical Devices
26.16 Propellants
26.17 Cryogenics
26.18 Oxygen
26.19 Ground Handling
26.20 Software Safety
26.21 Summary
27 Fire Safety
27.1 Characteristics
of Fire in Space
27.1.1 Overview of Low-Gravity Fire
27.1.2 Fuel and Oxidizer Supply and Flame Behavior
27.1.3 Fire Appearance and Signatures
27.1.4 Flame Ignition and Spread
27.1.5 Summary of Low-Gravity Fire Characteristics
27.2 Design for Fire Prevention
27.2.1 Materials
Flammability
27.2.2 Ignition Sources
27.3 Spacecraft Fire Detection
27.3.1 Prior Spacecraft Systems
27.3.2 Review of Low-Gravity Smoke
27.3.3 Spacecraft Atmospheric Dust
27.3.4 Sensors for Fire Detection
27.4 Spacecraft Fire Suppression
27.4.1 Spacecraft Fire-Suppression
Methods
27.4.2 Considerations for Spacecraft Fire Suppression
References
28 Safe-without-Services Design
29 Probabilistic Risk Assessment
with Emphasis on Design
29.1 Basic Elements of Probabilistic Risk Assessment
29.1.1 Identification of Initiating Events
29.1.2 Application
of Event-Sequence Diagrams and Event Trees
29.1.3 Modeling of Pivotal Events
29.1.4 Linkage and Quantification of Accident Scenarios
29.2 Construction of a Probabilistic Risk Assessment for
Design Evaluations
29.2.1 Uses of Probabilistic Risk Assessment
2.9.2 Reference
Mission
29.3 Relative-Risk Evaluations
29.3.1 Absolute- versus Relative-Risk Assessments
29.3.2 Roles of Relative-Risk Assessments in
Design Evaluations
29.3.3 Quantitative Evaluations
29.4 Evaluations of the Relative Risks of Alternative Designs
29.4.1 Overview of the
Probabilistic Risk-Assessment
Models Developed
29.4.2 Relative-Risk Comparisons of the Alternative Designs
References
Index
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