HANDBOOK OF NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION AND PROCESSING
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By Saeid Mokhatab William Poe James Speight
Description Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing gives engineers and managers complete coverage of natural gas transmission and processing
in the most rapidly growing sector to the petroleum industry. The authors provide a unique discussion of new technologies that are energy
efficient and environmentally appealing at the same time. It is an invaluable reference on natural gas engineering and the latest
techniques for all engineers and managers moving to natural gas processing as well as those currently working on natural gas projects.
Audience
Petroleum Engineers, Pipeline Engineers, Chemical Engineers, any engineer working with natural gas
Chapter 1: Natural
Gas Fundamental
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Natural Gas History
1.3 Natural Gas Origin and Composition
1.4 Gas Sources
1.4.1 Non-associated
Gas
1.4.2 Associated Gas
1.4.3 Coal Bed Methane
1.5 Natural Gas Phase Behavior
1.6 Natural Gas Properties
1.6.1 Chemical and Physical
Properties
1.6.2 Gas Specific Gravity
1.6.3 Ideal and Real Gas Laws
1.6.4 Gas Formation Volume Factor
1.6.5 Gas Density
1.6.6 Isothermal
Compressibility of Gases
1.6.7 Gas Viscosity
1.7 Quality
1.8 Transportation
1.8.1 Pipelines
1.8.2 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
1.8.3 Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG)
1.8.4 Gas-to-Solid (GTS)
1.8.5 Gas-to-Power (GTP)
1.8.6 Gas-to-Liquids (GTL)
1.8.7 Gas-to-Commodity (GTC)
1.9 References
Chapter 2: Natural Gas Energy Pricing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Energy Pricing, Supply and Demand
2.3 Sustainability and
the Increasing Fascination with Natural Gas
2.4 Is Natural Gas Always ?Non-renewable??
2.5 U.S. Natural Gas – Pricing, Markets, Risk
Management, and Supply
2.5.1 Some Features of Current Natural Gas Pricing in the U.S.
2.5.2 U.S. Energy Markets: The Regulation-Deregulation
Nexus
2.5.3 Energy Price Volatility and Derivatives
2.5.4 Natural Gas Supply in North America
2.5.4.1 The Special Position of the
U.S.
2.5.4.2 Canada as North American Gas Supplier
2.6 Natural Gas in Eurasia: the Special Position of Post-Soviet Russia
2.7 Looking
to Nature for a New Model
2.8 References
Chapter 3: Raw Gas Transmission
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Multiphase Flow Terminology
3.3 Multiphase Flow Regimes
3.3.1 Two-Phase Flow Regimes
3.3.1.1 Horizontal Flow Regimes
3.3.1.2 Vertical Flow Regimes
3.3.1.3 Inclined
Flow Regimes
3.3.1.4 Flow Pattern Maps
3.3.2 Three-Phase Flow Regimes
3.4 Calculating Multiphase Flow Pressure Gradients
3.4.1 Steady
State Two-Phase Flow
3.4.1.1 Single-Phase Flow Approaches
3.4.1.2 Homogeneous Flow Approaches
3.4.1.2.1 Lockhart and Martinelli Method
3.4.1.2.2 Beggs and Brill Method
3.4.1.3 Mechanistic Models
3.4.2 Steady State Three-Phase Flow
3.4.3 Transient Multiphase Flow
3.4.3.1
Two Fluid Model
3.4.3.2 Drift Flux Model
3.5 Multiphase Flow in Gas-Condensate Pipelines
3.6 Temperature Profile of Multiphase Flow Pipelines
3.7 Velocity Criteria for Sizing Multiphase Pipelines
3.7.1 Corrosion Criteria
3.7.2 Erosion Criteria
3.8 Multiphase Flow Assurance
3.8.1
Gas Hydrates
3.8.1.1 Hydrate Locus for Natural Gas Components
3.8.1.2 Prediction of Hydrate Formation Conditions
3.8.1.2.1 K-Factor Method
3.8.1.2.2 Baillie and Wichert Method
3.8.1.2.3 Gas Gravity Method
3.8.1.2.4 Commercial Software Packages
3.8.1.3 Hydrate Prevention Techniques
3.8.1.3.1 Thermal Methods
3.8.1.3.2 Chemical Inhibition
3.8.1.3.2.1 Types of Inhibitors
3.8.1.3.2.2 Prediction of Inhibitor Requirements
3.8.1.3.2.2 Design of Injection Systems
3.8.2 Corrosion
3.8.2.1 Choice of Corrosion Resistant Metals
3.8.2.2 Corrosion
Inhibitors
3.8.2.3 Cathodic Protection
3.8.2.4 Protective Coatings
3.8.3 Wax
3.8.3.1 Wax Deposition
3.8.3.1.1 Wax Deposition Envelope
3.8.3.1.2 Gas-Condensate Wax Deposition Envelope
3.8.3.2 Wax Formation in Multiphase Gas-Condensate Pipelines
3.8.3.2.1 Identification of Wax Deposition
Problems
3.8.3.2.2 Wax Deposition Inhibition/Prevention
3.8.3.2.3 Wax Deposit
Remediation
3.8.3.2.4 Controlled Production of Wax Deposits
3.8.4 Severe Slugging
3.8.4.1 Severe Slugging
Mechanism
3.8.4.2 Stability Analysis
3.8.4.3 Prevention and Control of Severe Slugging
3.8.4.3.1 Riser Base Gas Injection
3.8.4.3.2 Topside Choking
3.8.4.3.3 Control Methods
3.8.5 Real Time Flow Assurance Monitoring
3.9 Multiphase
Pipeline Operations
3.9.1 Leak Detection
3.9.2 Pigging
3.10 References
Chapter 4: Basic Concept of Natural Gas
Processing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Process Modules
4.3 Scope of Natural Gas Processing
4.3.1 Processing Objectives
4.3.2 Effect of Gas Type in Field Processing
4.3.3 Location of the Gas Field
4.4 References
Chapter 5:
Phase Separation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Gravity Separators
5.2.1 General Description
5.2.2 Separators Selection
5.2.3 Gravity Separation Theory
5.2.4 Design Considerations
5.2.5 Design Procedure
5.2.5.1 Vertical Separators
5.2.5.2 Horizontal Separators
5.2.6 Practical Separator Design
5.2.7 Operating Problems of Separators
5.3 Multistage
Separation
5.4 Centrifugal Separators
5.5 Twister Supersonic Separator
5.6 Slug Catchers
5.7 High Efficiency Liquid-Gas Coalescers
5.7.1 Aerosols
5.7.2 Coalescer Construction/Operation Principles
5.7.3 Modeling the Liquid/Gas Coalescer
5.7.4
Coalescer Performance/Operational Limits
5.7.5 Liquid/Gas Coalescer Applications
5.8 High Efficiency Liquid-Liquid Coalescer
5.8.1 Emulsions
5.8.2 Coalescer Principles and Materials of construction
5.8.3 Coalescer Mechanism of Operation
5.8.4 Liquid/Liquid Coalescer Performance
5.8.5 Limitations of Using Coalescers
5.8.6 Applications
5.9 References
Chapter 6: Condensate Stabilization
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Stabilization Processes
6.2.1 Flash Vaporization
6.2.2 Stabilization by Fractionation
6.2.2.1 Process Description
6.2.2.2 Design Consideration of Stabilization
Column
6.3 Condensate Storage
6.4 References
Chapter 7: Acid Gas Treating
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Acid Gas Removal
Processes
7.2.1 Batch Type Processes
7.2.1.1 Metal Oxide Processes
7.2.1.1.1 Iron Sponge Process
7.2.1.1.2 Zinc Oxide Process
7.2.1.2 Slurry Processes
7.2.1.2.1 Chemsweet
Process
7.2.1.2.2 Sulfa-Check Process
7.2.2 Amine Processes
7.2.2.1 Process Description
7.2.2.2 Design Considerations
7.2.3 Carbonate Washing and Water Washing
7.2.4 Methanol Based Processes
7.2.5 Other Processes
7.2.6 Process Selection
7.3 Sulfur Recovery Processes
7.4 References
Chapter 8: Natural Gas
Compression
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Reciprocating Compressors
8.3 Centrifugal Compressors
8.4 Comparison Between Compressors
8.5 Thermodynamics of Gas Compression
8.6 Real Gas Behavior and Equation of State
8.7 Compressors Sizing Procedure
8.7.1 Compression
Ratio
8.7.2 Determining Compression Number of Stages
8.7.3 Estimating BHP
8.8 Compressor Control
8.8.1 Reciprocating
Compressors
8.8.2 Centrifugal Compressors
8.9 Compressor Performance Map
8.9.1 Reciprocating Compressors
8.9.2 Centrifugal
Compressors
8.10 References
Chapter 9: Gas Dehydration
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Water Content Determination
9.3 Gas
Dehydration Using Glycol
9.3.1 Choice of Glycol
9.3.2 Process Description
9.3.3 Design Considerations
9.3.4 Glycol Dehydrator Operational Problems
9.4 Solid Bed Dehydration
9.4.1 Desiccant Capacity
9.4.2 Desiccant Selection
9.4.3 Process Description
9.4.4 Design Considerations
9.4.5 Adsorber Sizing Procedure
9.4.6 Solid Bed
Dehydrator Operational Problems
9.5 References
Chapter 10 Natural Gas Liquids Recovery
10.1 Introduction
10.2 NGL
Recovery Processes
10.2.1 Refrigeration Processes
10.2.1.1 Mechanical Refrigeration
10.2.1.2
Self Refrigeration
10.2.1.3 Cryogenic Refrigeration
10.2.2 Lean Oil Absorption
10.2.3 Solid Bed Adsorption
10.2.4 Membrane Separation Process
10.2.5 Selection of NGL Recovery Processes
10.3 NGL Fractionation
10.3.1
Fractionator Operation
10.3.2 Fractionator Design
10.3.3 Design Procedure
10.4 Gasoline and LPG Treating
10.4.1 Doctor Process
10.4.2 Merox Process
10.5 References
Chapter 11: Sales Gas Transmission
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Gas Flow Fundamentals
11.2.1 General Flow Equation
11.2.2 Friction Factor Correlations
11.2.3 Practical Flow Equations
11.3 Predicting Gas Temperature Profile
11.4 Transient Flow in Gas Transmission Pipelines
11.5
Compressor Stations and Associated Pipeline Installations
11.5.1 Compressor Stations Drivers
11.5.2 Compressors Configurations
11.5.3 Reduction and Metering Stations
11.5.3.1 Filters
11.5.3.2 Heaters
11.5.3.3 Pressure Reduction and
Regulation System
11.5.3.4 Metering System
11.6 Design Considerations of Sales Gas Pipelines
11.6.1 Line Sizing Criteria
11.6.2 Compressor Station Spacing
11.6.3 Compression Power
11.7 Pipeline Operations
11.8 References
Chapter
12: Gas Processing Plant Controls and Automation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Early Methods of Gas Plant Automation
12.3 Microprocessor
Based Automation
12.3.1 Programmable Logic Controllers
12.3.2 Distributed Control Systems
12.3.2.1
Remote Control Panel
12.3.2.2 Communications Medium
12.3.2.3 Central Control
12.3.3 Standards
and Protocols
12.4 Control of Equipment and Process Systems
12.4.1 Gas Gathering
12.4.2 Gas Treating
12.4.3 Sulfur
Recovery
12.4.4 Gas Dehydration
12.4.4.1 Absorption
12.4.4.2 Adsorbents
12.4.5
Liquid Recovery
12.4.5.1 Condensate Stabilization
12.4.5.2 Refrigeration
12.4.5.3
Cryogenic Recovery (Turboexpander Processes)
12.4.5.4 Demethanizer
12.4.6 NGL Fractionation
12.4.7
Centrifugal Compressors
12.4.8 Centrifugal Pumps
12.4.9 Reciprocating Pumps
12.4.10 Utilities
12.5 Automation
Applications
12.5.1 Data Historians
12.5.2 Asset and Performance Management
12.5.3 Statistical Process Control
12.5.4 Advanced Regulatory Control
12.5.5 Multivariable Predictive Control
12.5.6 Optimization
12.5.7
Leveraging Automation
12.5.7.1 Automation Upgrade Master Plans
12.5.7.2 Determining The Benefits
12.5.7.2.1 Baselining
12.5.7.2.2 Statistical Analysis
12.5.7.2.3 Performance Improvement Initiatives
12.6 Condensate Stabilizer Case Study
12.7 References
Chapter
13: Dynamic Simulation of Gas Processing Plants
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Areas of Application of Dynamic Simulation
13.2.1
Plant Design
13.2.1.1 Controllability and Operability
13.2.1.2 Safety Analysis
13.2.1.3 Start-up Procedure Definition
13.2.1.4 DCS Check-out
13.2.1.5 Operator Training
13.2.1.6 Advanced Process Control
13.2.2 Plant Operation
13.2.2.1 Troubleshooting
13.2.2.2 Plant Performance Enhancement
13.2.2.3 Incident Analysis
13.2.2.4 Operator Decision Support
13.2.2.5 Operator Training
13.2.2.6 Advanced Process Control (APC)
13.3 Modeling Considerations
13.3.1 Level of Detail in the Model
13.3.2 Model Speed
13.3.3 Equipment Specific Considerations
13.3.3.1 Valves
13.3.3.2 Rotating Equipment
13.3.3.3 Piping Equipment
13.3.3.4
Columns
13.3.3.5 Heat Exchangers
13.3.3.6 Control Systems
13.4 Control of Equipment and Process
Systems
13.4.1 Gas Gathering and Transportation
13.4.2 Gas Treating
13.4.3 Sulfur Recovery
13.4.4 Gas
Dehydration
13.4.5 Liquids Recovery, Natural Gas Liquefaction
13.4.6 NGL Fractionation
13.5 Case Study I: Analysis of
a Fuel Gas System Startup
13.5.1 Introduction
13.5.2 Steady State Analysis
13.5.3 Dynamic Analysis
13.5.4
Conclusion
13.6 Case Study II: Online Dynamic Model of a Trunk Pipeline
13.7 References
Chapter 14 Environmental Aspects of
Gas Processing and Use
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas Processing
14.2.1 Air Pollutant
Emissions
14.2.2 Gas Flaring Emissions
14.2.3 Methane Emissions
14.2.3.1 Pneumatic Devices
14.2.3.2 Dehydrator Systems
14.2.3.3 Vapor Recovery Units
14.2.3.4 Compressors
14.2.3.5 Cryogenic Equipment
14.2.3.6 Flares
14.2.3.7 Methane Emissions Reduction
14.2.4 Water Pollution
14.2.5 Soil Pollution
14.2.6 Pollution Prevention
14.3 Emissions from Natural Gas Use
14.3.1 Combustion Emissions
14.3.2 Acid Rain Formation
14.3.3 Smog Formation
14.3.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
14.3.5 Industrial and Electric Generation Emissions
14.4 Protocols and Environmental Programs
14.5 Environmental Management System
14.6 References
Chapter 15 Maximizing Profitability of Gas Plant Assets
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Performance Strategy – Integrated Gas Plant
15.3 Strategies for Organizational Behavior and Information
15.4 Organizational Behavior Model
15.4.1 Information
Quality
15.4.2 Perception of Information
15.4.2.1 Two Dimensional Curves and Plots
15.4.2.2
Prediction Trends
15.4.2.3 Dynamic Performance Measures
15.4.2.4 Performance Messages
15.4.3
Capability to Perform
15.4.4 Organizational Hierarchy of Needs
15.4.5 Behavior
15.5 The Successful Information Strategy
15.6 The Impact of Living with Information Technology
15.7 Vision of the Modern Plant Operation
15.8 Operations Strategy
15.9 Model Based
Asset Management
15.10 Optimization
15.10.1 Tools for Optimization
15.10.2 Optimization Alternatives
15.11 Industrial
Relevance
15.12 The Technology Integration Challenge
15.13 Scientific Approach
15.14 Other Miscellaneous Initiatives
15.15 Conclusion
15.16 References
Chapter 16 Gas Plant Project Management
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Project Management Overview
16.3 Industry
Perspective
16.4 The Project Management Process
16.4.1 Defining Business and Project Objectives
16.4.1.1 The
Project Charter
16.4.1.2 Project Team Roles and Responsibilities
16.4.2 Contracting Strategy
16.4.3
Conceptual Estimates and Schedules
16.4.4 Project Execution Planning
16.4.5 Pre Project Planning Measurement
16.4.6 The Responsibility Matrix
16.5 Project Controls
16.5.1 Project Timeline
16.5.2 Risk Management
16.5.2.1 Project Risk Management Methodology
16.5.2.2 Risk Response Planning
16.5.2.3 Developing
Risk Response Strategies
16.5.2.4 Qualitative Project Risk Management
16.5.2.5 Quantitative Project
Risk Management Assessment
16.5.2.6 Risk Process Modelling
16.5.2.7 Project Risk Management in
Interaction with other Management Processes
16.5.2.8 Other Risk Mitigation Concepts
16.6 Quality Assurance
16.7 Commissioning
and Start-up
16.8 Operate and Evaluate
16.9 Project Closeout
16.10 Conclusion
16.11 References
Appendix 1 Three-Phase Flash Calculation
for Hydrocarbon Systems Containing Water
Appendix 2 Conversion Factors
Appendix 3 Physical Properties of Fluids
Appendix 4
Glossary
Index
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