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By L. Boetter-Jensen, Risoe National Laboratory, Nuclear Safety Research Department, Roskilde, Denmark S.W.S. McKeever, Oklahoma State University, Department of Physics, Stillwater, USA A.G. Wintle, University of Wales, Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth, UK
Description Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) has become the technique of choice for many areas of radiation dosimetry. The technique is finding
widespread application in a variety of radiation dosimetry fields, including personal monitoring, environmental monitoring, retrospective
dosimetry (including geological dating and accident dosimetry), space dosimetry, and many more. In this book we have attempted to synthesize
the major advances in the field, covering both fundamental understanding and the many applications. The latter serve to demonstrate the
success and popularity of OSL as a dosimetry method.
The book is designed for researchers and radiation dosimetry practitioners alike.
It delves into the detailed theory of the process from the point of view of stimulated relaxation phenomena, describing the energy storage
and release processes phenomenologically and developing detailed mathematical descriptions to enable a quantitative understanding of
the observed phenomena. The various stimulation modes (continuous wave, pulsed, or linear modulation) are introduced and compared. The
properties of the most important synthetic OSL materials beginning with the dominant carbon-doped Al2O3, and moving through discussions
of other, less-well studied but nevertheless important, or potentially important, materials. The OSL properties of the two most important
natural OSL dosimetry material types, namely quartz and feldspars are discussed in depth. The applications chapters deal with the use
of OSL in personal, environmental, medical and UV dosimetry, geological dating and retrospective dosimetry (accident dosimetry and dating).
Finally the developments in instrumentation that have occurred over the past decade or more are described.
The book will find use
in those laboratories within academia, national institutes and the private sector where research and applications in radiation dosimetry
using luminescence are being conducted. Potential readers include personnel involved in radiation protection practice and research, hospitals,
nuclear power stations, radiation clean-up and remediation, food irradiation and materials processing, security monitoring, geological
and archaeological dating, luminescence studies of minerals, etc.
Contents
PREFACE.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.
1.1 Optically stimulated luminescence.
1.2 Historical development
of OSL dosimetry.
1.3 OSL dosimetry.
1.3.1 Personal dosimetry.
1.3.2 Environmental dosimetry.
1.3.3 Medical dosimetry.
1.3.4 Retrospective dosimetry.
1.4 This book.
2.1
Stimulated luminescence.
2.2 Generalised mathematical description of optically
stimulated luminescence.
2.3 The photoionisation
cross-section.
2.3.1 Optical transitions.
2.3.2 Wavelength dependence.
2.3.3 Measurement of the photoionisation cross-
section.
2.4 CW-OSL.
2.4.1 Models and rate equations.
2.4.2 The one-trap/one-centre model.
2.4.3 Models containing
multiple-traps and centres.
2.4.4 A more generalised model.
2.4.5 Temperature dependence effects.
2.4.6 Thermal quenching.
2.5 LM-OSL.
2.5.1 First-order and general-order-kinetics.
2.5.2 Relationship between LM-OSL and CW-OSL.
2.5.3 Wavelength
dependence of LM-OSL.
2.5.4 Photoconductivity.
2.6 Pulsed OSL.
2.6.1 Principles of POSL.
2.6.2 Delayed OSL (DOSL).
2.7 Phototransferred effects.
2.7.1 Procedure.
2.7.2 Mathematical description and typical data.
2.8 Radiophotoluminescence.
2.8.1 Procedure.
CHAPTER 3: OSL PROPERTIES OF SYNTHETIC MATERIALS.
3.1 Al2O3.
3.1.1
Introduction.
3.1.2 Crystal growth.
3.1.3 OSL stimulation and emission characteristics of
Al2O3:C.
3.1.4 The OSL response of Al2O3:C
to radiation exposure.
3.1.5 The temperature dependence of OSL from
Al2O3:C.
3.1.6 Zeroing of the OSL signal from
Al2O3:C.
3.2 Halides.
3.2.1 KCl.
3.2.2 KBr.
3.2.3 NaCl.
3.2.4 RbI.
3.2.5 CaF2.
3.2.6 BaFX (X≡Br, Cl, I).
3.3 Sulphates.
3.3.1 MgSO4.
3.3.2 CaSO4.
3.4 Sulphides.
3.4.1 AS (A ≡ Mg, Sr,
Ca, Ba).
3.5 Oxides.
3.5.1 BeO.
3.5.2 Fused quartz.
4.1. Personal dosimetry.
4.1.1 Introduction.
4.1.2 Landauer's LuxelTM personal dosimetry
system.
4.1.3 Landauer's InLightTM personal
dosimetry system.
4.1.4 Beta dosimetry.
4.1.5 POSL imaging.
4.2. Environmental OSL dosimetry using
Al2O3.
4.2.1 Measurement of the natural terrestrial background
radiation.
4.2.2 Measurement of the natural space background
radiation.
4.3. UV dosimetry.
4.4. OSL and RL remote
optical fibre dosimetry in medical
applications.
4.4.1 Real-time in-vivo monitoring of doses during
radiotherapy.
4.4.2 Optical
fibre dosimeters.
CHAPTER 5: OSL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL MATERIALS.
5.1 Quartz.
5.1.1 Crystal structure and
point defects.
5.1.2 Decay curve shapes obtained under continuous
stimulation - CW-OSL.
5.1.2.1 Stimulation sources.
5.1.2.2 Effect of the 110 C trap.
5.1.2.3 Dependence on power.
5.1.2.4 Three components.
5.1.2.5 Effect of stimulation
wavelength.
5.1.2.6 Effect of stimulation temperature.
5.1.3 Linear modulation OSL - LM-OSL.
5.1.3.1 LM-OSL at 160
C with 470 nm
stimulation.
5.1.3.2 LM-OSL at different temperatures with 526
nm stimulation.
5.1.4 Pulsed OSL.
5.1.4.1.1 TRL.
5.1.4.1.2 DOSL or OSA.
5.1.5 Excitation spectra.
5.1.5.1 Bleaching response spectrum.
5.1.5.2
Excitation spectra after bleaching by 514
± 25 nm light.
5.1.5.3 Continuous scanning of stimulation
wavelengths.
5.1.5.4 Excitation interference filters and using
xenon lamp.
5.1.5.5 Excitation using laser lines from 458 to
645 nm.
5.1.5.6 Stimulation in the infrared 780 - 920
nm.
5.1.6 Emission spectra.
5.1.6.1 OSL emission spectra.
5.1.6.2
TL emission spectra.
(i)360 - 420 nm (near UV to violet).
(ii)420 - 490 nm (blue).
(iii) 590 - 650
nm (orange).
5.6.1.3 Radioluminescence.
5.1.7 Dose dependence.
5.1.7.1 Fast component.
(i) Multiple aliquot
data.
(ii) Single aliquot data.
(iii) Single grain data.
5.1.7.2 Low doses.
5.1.8 Effects of previous thermal
treatment.
5.1.8.1 High temperature annealing - above 500
C.
(i) Comparison of LM-OSL, TL, RL and
EPR.
(ii)
CW-OSL growth curves after
annealing.
5.1.8.2 Low temperature annealing - 160 to 280
C.
5.1.8.3 Thermal stability.
(i) Isothermal decay.
(ii) Pulse annealing.
5.1.8.4 Irradiation at elevated temperature.
5.1.8.5 Thermal transfer.
5.1.9 Raised temperature OSL.
5.1.9.1 Thermal quenching.
5.1.9.2 Thermal assistance.
5.1.10 The slow component.
5.1.10.1 Thermal stability.
5.1.10.2 Growth curve.
5.1.10.3 Optical bleaching.
5.1.11 Photoionisation cross-section.
5.1.12 Modelling processes that give rise to OSL in
quartz.
5.1.3 Summary.
5.2 Feldspars.
5.2.1 Crystal structure.
5.2.2 Decay curve shape obtained under continuous
stimulation - CW-OSL and CW-IRSL.
5.2.2.1 Stimulation sources.
5.2.2.2
Effect of stimulation temperature.
(i) initial signal.
(ii) decay curve shape.
5.2.3 Linear modulation IRSL (LM-OSL).
5.2.4 Pulsed OSL and IRSL.
5.2.4.1 Pulsed OSL.
5.2.4.2 Pulsed IRSL.
5.2.4.3 Optically stimulated afterglow.
5.2.5 Excitation spectra.
5.2.5.1 Direct measurements.
5.2.5.2 Bleaching response spectrum.
5.26 Emission spectra.
5.2.6.1 IRSL emission spectra.
(i) 280-290 nm (near UV).
(ii) 320-340 nm (near UV).
(iii) 390-440 nm (violet/blue).
(iv) 550-570 nm (yellow/green).
(v) 600-750 nm (red/far red).
5.2.6.2 TL emission spectra.
5.2.6.3 RL emission
spectra.
(i) under X-ray stimulation at low
temperature.
(ii) under X-ray stimulation above room
temperature.
(iii) under beta stimulation from a
137Cs source.
5.2.6.4 PL emission spectra.
5.2.7 Effects of previous
optical treatment.
5.2.7.1 Bleaching at ambient temperature.
5.2.7.2 IR bleaching at elevated temperature.
5.2.8 Effects
of previous thermal treatment.
5.2.8.1 Preheating of laboratory and naturally
irradiated samples.
5.2.8.2 Pulse annealing.
5.2.8.3 Irradiation at elevated temperature.
5.2.9 Raised temperature IRSL and OSL.
5.2.9.1 Thermal quenching.
5.2.9.2
Thermal assistance.
(i) above room temperature.
(ii) below room temperature.
(iii) wavelength dependence.
(iv) link to anomalous fading.
5.2.10 Anomalous fading.
5.2.10.1 TL, OSL and IRSL.
5.2.10.2 Attempts to remove anomalous
fading.
(i) using a preheat.
(ii) using an optical treatment.
5.2.10.3 Attempts to avoid anomalous fading.
(i)using time resolved measurements.
(ii)using different detection
wavelengths.
5.2.10.4 CL and TL spectra of fading
feldspars.
5.2.10.5 Low temperature phosphorescence.
5.2.10.6 Single grain IRSL fading and fadia
plots.
5.2.10.7
Logarithmic signal decay.
5.2.10.8 Correcting for anomalous fading.
5.2.11 Radioluminescence.
5.2.11.1 A new dating
method.
5.2.11.2 Practical considerations.
5.2.11.3 Methods of De determination.
5.2.11.4 Thermal stability.
5.2.11.5 Single grain measurements.
5.2.12 Models for IRSL, OSL, IR-RL in feldspars.
5.2.12.1 IRSL.
5.2.12.2 OSL.
5.2.12.3 IR-RL.
5.2.12.4 Comparison of IR-RL and IRSL (or
OSL).
5.3 Conclusions.
CHAPTER 6: RETROSPECTIVE
OSL DOSIMETRY.
Part I: RETROSPECTIVE ACCIDENT DOSIMETRY.
6.1. Introduction.
6.2. Materials and
sampling.
6.3. Sample preparation and experimental details.
6.4. Determination of the accident dose.
6.4.1 Retrospective
assessment of environmental dose
rates.
6.4.2 Estimation of the accident dose.
6.5. Analytical protocols.
6.5.1 Introduction.
6.5.2 Multiple-aliquot protocols.
6.5.3 The Single Aliquot Regeneration and Added Dose
(SARA)protocol.
6.5.4 True single-aliquot
protocols.
6.5.4.1 Introduction.
6.5.4.2 Variation of OSL signal with preheat.
6.5.4.3 Choice of OSL signal.
6.5.4.4
Sensitivity changes with regeneration cycles.
6.5.4.5 The single-aliquot regeneration (SAR)
protocol.
6.6. Evaluation of
dose-depth profiles in bricks.
6.6.1 Continuous OSL scanning.
6.6.2 Determination of depth-dose profiles from
Chernobyl
bricks.
6.6.3 Absolute errors and estimated precision of the
equivalent dose in bricks.
6.7. Retrospective OSL dosimetry
using unheated quartz.
6.7.1 Dose distributions.
6.7.2 Thermal transfer and sensitivity changes.
6.7.3 Concrete.
6.8 Retrospective OSL dosimetry using household and workplace
chemicals.
6.9 Retrospective OSL dosimetry using porcelain.
6.9.1 Introduction.
6.9.2 The origin of OSL in porcelain.
6.9.2.1 Time-decaying dose-dependent OSL
signals.
6.9.2.2
Time-steady PL emission spectra from
porcelain.
6.9.2.3 OSL stimulation spectra.
6.9.3 OSL dose response of porcelain.
6.9.4 Dose-depth profiles in porcelain and the effect
of transparency.
6.9.5 OSL dosimetry using porcelain dental crowns.
6.10 Retrospective accident dosimetry - conclusions.
Part II: GEOLOGICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING.
6.11 Measurement
Procedures.
6.11.1 Multiple-aliquot methods.
6.11.2 Single-aliquot methods.
6.11.2.1 Feldspars.
(i) Additive
dose.
(ii) Regenerative dose.
6.11.2.2 Quartz.
(i) Additive dose.
(ii) Regenerative dose.
6.11.2.3 Luminescence
sensitivity.
(i) Multiple luminescence signals.
(ii)Comparison of the 110 C TL peak and
OSL.
6.11.2.4 Reliability
of OSL monitoring of
sensitivity change.
6.11.3 Dose distributions for single aliquots.
6.11.3.1 Histograms.
6.11.3.2
Probability plots.
6.11.3.3 Radial plots.
6.11.3.4 Calculation of De.
6.12 Single grains.
6.12.1 Measurements.
6.12.1.1. Feldspars.
6.12.1.2 Quartz.
6.12.2 Dose distributions for single grains.
6.12.2.1 Histograms.
6.12.2.2
Probability plots.
6.12.2.3 Radial plots.
6.12.2.4 Calculation of De.
6.13 Geological and archaeological
dating-conclusions.
CHAPTER 7: OSL MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY.
7.1 Stimulation modes.
7.1.1 CW-OSL.
7.1.2
LM-OSL.
7.1.3 POSL.
7.2 The light detection system.
7.2.1 Photomultiplier tubes.
7.2.2 Imaging photon detectors.
7.2.3 Solid state detectors.
7.3 Automated OSL readers.
7.4 Development of optical stimulation sources.
7.4.1 Laser
stimulation.
7.4.2 IR LED stimulation.
7.4.3 IR laser diode stimulation.
7.4.4 Broad-band light stimulation.
7.4.5 Optimisation of OSL detection.
7.4.6 Green LED stimulation.
7.4.7 Blue LED stimulation.
7.4.8 Blue LED and cut-off
filter characteristics.
7.4.9 Ramping the LEDs.
7.4.10 Pulsed and time-resolved OSL.
7.5 Wavelength resolved OSL.
7.5.1 Stimulation spectrometry.
7.5.2 Emission spectrometry.
7.6 Imaging systems.
7.7 Single grain OSL systems.
7.7.1 Introduction.
7.7.2 CCD luminescence imaging systems.
7.7.3 Single grain laser OSL systems.
7.8 Automatic OSL
scanners.
7.9 Portable systems for OSL measurements in the field.
7.10 The measurement of radioluminescence.
7.11 Commercially
available OSL apparatus.
7.12 Future developments.
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