Description The book analyzes the different major accidents which can occur in process plants and during the transportation of hazardous materials.
The main features of fires, explosions and toxic releases are discussed, and a set of mathematical models allowing the prediction of
their effects and consequences are explained. With a practical approach, the models are applied to simple illustrative examples, as well
as to more complex real cases. The use of these calculations in the frame of Quantitative Risk Analysis is also treated.
Evaluation
of the effects of major accidents in industrial installations covers the following topics: general introduction, source term, fire accidents,
vapour cloud explosions, BLEVEs and vessel explosions, atmospheric dispersion of toxic or flammable clouds, vulnerability, and quantitative
risk analysis.
This book is a useful tool for engineering professionals, as well as an interesting reference for teaching at graduate
and post-graduate levels.
Audience
Engineers from the industry, consultants
Engineers from the administration
University students and professors
Contents Preface v
1. Introduction 1
1. Risk 1
2. Risk analysis 2
3. Major accidents 5
3.1 Types 5
3.2 Damage 9
4. Domino effect
12
4.1 Classification of domino effects
4.2 An example case
5. Mathematical modelling of accidents 14
Nomenclature 16
References
16
2. Source term 19
1. Introduction 19
2. Liquid release 21
2.1 Flow of liquid through a hole in a tank 21
2.2 Flow of liquid
through a pipe 24
2.2.1 Liquid flow rate 24
2.2.2 Friction factor 27
3. Gas/vapour release 30
3.1 Flow of gas/vapour through
a hole 30
3.1.1 Critical velocity 30
3.1.2 Mass flow rate 33
3.1.3 Discharge coefficient 33
3.2 Flow of gas/vapour through a
pipe 35
3.3 Time-dependent gas release 40
4. Two-phase flow 42
4.1 Flashing liquids 42
4.2 Two-phase discharge 43
5. Safety
relief valves 44
5.1 Discharge from a safety relief valve 45
6. Relief discharges 47
6.1 Relief flow rate for vessels subject to
external fire 48
6.2 Relief flow rate for vessels undergoing a runaway reaction 49
7. Evaporation of a liquid from a pool 53
7.1
Evaporation of liquids 53
7.2 Pool size 53
7.2.1 Pool on ground 53
7.2.2 Pool on water 53
7.3 Evaporation of boiling liquids
53
7.4 Evaporation of non-boiling liquids 54
8. General outflow guidelines for quantitative risk analysis 55
8.1 Loss-of-containment
events in pressurized tanks and vessels 56
8.2 Loss-of-containment events in atmospheric tanks 56
8.3 Loss-of-containment events
in pipes 56
8.4 Loss-of-containment events in pumps 56
8.5 Loss-of-containment events in relief devices 56
8.6 Loss-of-containment
events for storage in warehouses 57
8.7 Loss-of-containment events in transport units in an establishment 57
8.8 Pool evaporation
57
8.9 Outfllow and atmospheric dispersion 58
Nomenclature 58
References 59
3. Fire accidents 61
1. Introduction 61
2. Combustion
61
2.1 Combustion reaction and combustion heat 62
2.2 Premixed flames and diffusion flames 63
3. Types of fire 63
3.1 Pool fires
64
3.2 Jet fires 65
3.3 Flash fires 65
3.4 Fireballs 66
4. Flammability 66
4.1 Flammability limits 66
4.1.1 Estimation of
flammability limits 67
4.1.2 Flammability limits of gas mixtures 69
4.1.3 Flammability limits as a function of pressure 70
4.1.4
Flammability limits as a function of temperature 70
4.1.5 Inerting and flammability diagrams 71
4.2 Flash point temperature 72
4.3 Autoignition temperature 73
5. Estimation of thermal radiation from fires 74
5.1 Point source model 74
5.2 Solid flame model
77
5.2.1 View factor 78
5.2.2 Emissive power 80
6. Flame size 83
6.1 Pool fire size 84
6.1.1 Pool diameter 84
6.1.2 Burning
rate 86
6.1.3 Height and length of the flames 87
6.1.4 Influence of wind 87
6.2 Size of a jet fire 90
6.2.1 Jet flow 90
6.2.2
Shape and size of the jet fire 92
6.2.3 Influence of wind 94
6.3 Flash fire 99
7. Boilover 100
7.1 Tendency of hydrocarbons to
boilover 102
7.2 Boilover effects 103
8. Fireball 104
8.1 Fireball geometry 104
8.1.1 Ground diameter 104
8.1.2 Fireball duration
and diameter 104
8.1.3 Height reached by the centre of the fireball 105
8.2 Thermal features 106
8.2.1 Radiant heat fraction
106
8.2.2 Emissive power 107
8.2.3 View factor 108
8.3 Constant or variable D, H and E 108
9. Example case 109
Nomenclature
113
References 115
4. Vapour cloud explosions 119
1. Introduction 119
2. Vapour clouds 120
3. Blast and blast wave 121
3.1
Blast wave 121
3.2 Detonations 122
3.3 Deflagrations 123
3.4 Blast scaling 123
3.5 Free-air and ground explosions 124
4. Estimation
of blast: TNT equivalency method 125
5. Estimation of blast: multi-energy method 127
6. Estimation of blast: Baker-Strehlow-Tang
method 133
7. Comparison of the three methods 136
8. A statistical approach to the estimation of the probable number of fatalities
in
accidental explosions 138
9. Example case 140
Nomenclature 144
References 144
5. BLEVEs and vessel explosions 147
1. Introduction
147
2. Mechanism of BLEVE 149
2.1 Liquid superheating 151
2.2 Superheat limit temperature 153
2.3 Superheat limit temperature
from energy balance 156
2.4 When is an explosion a BLEVE? 159
3. Vessel failure 163
3.1 Mechanism 163
3.2 Pressure required for
vessel failure 164
4. Estimation of explosion effects 165
4.1 Thermal radiation 165
4.2 Mechanical energy released by the explosions
165
4.2.1 Ideal gas behaviour and isentropic expansion 166
4.2.2 Real gas behaviour and irreversible expansion 168
4.3 Pressure
wave 169
4.4 Using liquid superheating energy for a quick estimation of – P 173
4.5 Estimation of – P from characteristic curves
176
4.6 Missiles 178
4.6.1 Range 181
4.6.2 Velocity 182
5. Preventive measures 183
6. Example cases 186
Nomenclature 190
References 192
6. Atmospheric dispersion of toxic or flammable clouds 195
1. Introduction 195
2. Atmospheric variables 195
2.1
Wind 196
2.2 Lapse rates 199
2.3 Atmospheric stability 200
2.4 Relative humidity 204
2.5 Units of measurement 204
3. Dispersion
models 205
3.1 Continuous and instantaneous releases 205
3.2 Effective height of emission 207
4. Dispersion models for neutral
gases (Gaussian models) 208
4.1 Continuous emission 209
4.2 Instantaneous emission 215
4.3 Short-term releases 218
5. Dispersion
models for heavier-than-air gases 219
5.1 Britter and McQuaid model 221
5.1.1 Continuous release 221
5.1.2 Instantaneous release
223
5.1.3 Finite duration release 225
6. Calculating concentration contour coordinates 227
6.1 The Ooms integral plume model
227
6.2 determining concentration contour coordinates 227
7. Dispersion of dust 230
8. Atmospheric dispersion of infectious agents
231
8.1 Emission source 231
8.2 Dispersion of airborne pathogenic agents 232
8.3 Epidemics: dispersion of airborne viruses 232
9. Escaping 236
10. Sheltering 236
10.1 Concentration indoors 236
10.1.1 Continuous release 236
10.1.2 Temporary release 237
10.1.3 Instantaneous release 239
10.1.4 A simplified approach 241
11. Example case 242
Nomenclature 244
Annex 6-1 246
References
247
7. Vulnerability 249
1. Introduction 249
2. Population response to an accident 249
3. Probit analysis 250
4. Vulnerability
to thermal radiation 254
4.1 Damage to people 254
4.1.1 Probit equations 257
4.1.2 Clothing 258
4.1.3 Escape 258
4.1.4 Effect
of hot air 261
4.2 Material damages 261
5. Vulnerability to explosions 263
5.1 Damage to human beings 263
5.1.1 Direct consequences
263
5.1.2 Indirect consequences 265
5.1.3 Collapse of buildings 268
5.2 Consequences of an explosion for buildings and structures
269
6. Vulnerability to toxic substances 271
6.1 Dose and probit equations 273
6.2 Substances released from a fire 275
7. Inert
gases 277
8. Influence of sheltering 279
8.1 Thermal radiation 279
8.2 Blast
8.3 Toxic exposure
9. Relationship between the number
of people killed and the number of people injured in major accidents 280
10. Zoning according to vulnerability 281
11. Example case
283
Nomenclature 288
Annex 7-1 287
References 288
8. Quantitative risk analysis 291
1. Introduction 291
2. Quantitative risk
analysis steps 292
3. Individual and societal risks 294
3.1 Individual and societal risks definition 294
4 Risk mapping 296
4.1
Individual risk contours 296
4.2 Procedure 296
4.3 Societal risk 298
5. Introductory examples of risk calculation 299
6. Frequencies
and probabilities 306
6.1 Frequencies of most common loss-of-containment events 306
6.2 Failure of repression systems 306
6.3 Human
error 306
6.4 Probabilities for ignition and explosion of flammable spills 306
6.5 Meteorological data 309
7. Example case 309
7.1 Estimation of the frequencies of initiating events 311
7.2 Event trees of the diverse initiating events 312
7.3 Effects of the
different accidental scenarios 319
7.4 Calculation of the individual risk 327
Nomenclature 329
References 331
Annex 1 Constants
in the Antoine equation 333
Annex 2 Flammability levels, flash temperature and heat of combustion (higher value) for different substances
335
Annex 3 Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) 337
Annex 4 Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health concentrations (IDLH)
345
Annex 5 Determining the damage to humans from explosions using characteristic curves 347
Index 353
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