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BONES AND CARTILAGE: DEVELOPMENTAL SKELETAL BIOLOGY
Bones and Cartilage: Developmental Skeletal Biology
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By
Brian Hall, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Description
Bones and Cartilage provides the most in-depth review ever assembled on the topic. It examines the function, development and evolution of bone and cartilage as tissues, organs and skeletal systems. It describes how bone and cartilage is developed in embryos and are maintained in adults, how bone reappears when we break a leg, or even regenerates when a newt grows a new limb, or a lizard a tail. This book also looks at the molecules and cells that make bones and cartilages and how they differ in various parts of the body and across species. It answers such questions as ?Is bone always bone?? ?Do bones that develop indirectly by replacing other tissues, such as marrow, tendons or ligaments, differ from one another?? ?Is fish bone the same as human bone?? ?Can sharks even make bone?? and many more.

Audience
Biologists, medical researchers, evolutionary biologists, paleontologists, skeletal biologists, endocrinologists as well as graduate students and clinicians in all of these areas

Contents
Epigraph Preface Table of Contents (FULL) PART I – SKELETAL TISSUES Chapter 1 – Types of Skeletal Tissues Bone Cartilage Dentine Enamel Intermediate Tissues Cementum Enameloid Chondroid and Chondroid bone Bone or Cartilage Chapter 2 – Bone Discovery of the Basic Structure of Bone Cellular Bone Intramembranous vs Endochondral Bone? Embryonic Origins Other Modes Metabolic Differences Morphogenetic Differences Osteones Growth Regional Remodeling Ageing Osteones Over Time Acellular Bone Caisson Disease and Abnormal Acellular Bone in Mammals Acellular Bone in Teleost Fishes Development Resorption Repair of Fractures Ca++ Regulation Aspidine Bone in 'Cartilaginous' Fishes (Sharks and Rays) Chapter 3 ?Cartilage Types Chondrones Cartilage Growth Cartilage Canals Secondary Ossification Centres Elastic Cartilage Elastic Fibres The Cells Elastic Cartilage Intermediates Shark Cartilage Development and Mineralization Growth Inhibition of Vascular Invasion Lampreys Mucocartilage Lamprin Mineralization Hagfish PART II – NATURAL EXPERIEMENTS Chapter 4 – Invertebrate Cartilages Chondroid, Cartilage or Neither Odontophoral Cartilage of the Channeled Whelk, Busycon canaliculatum Branchial (Gill Book) Cartilage of the Horseshoe Crab, Limulus polyphemus Cranial Cartilages in Squid, Cuttlefish and Octopuses Composition of the ECM Glycosaminoglycans Collagens Tentacular Cartilages of Polychaete Annelids Lophophore Cartilage in the Articulate Brachiopod, Terebratalia transversa Mineralization of Invertebrate Cartilages Cartilage Origins Chapter 5 – Intermediate Tissues Chondroid and Chondroid Bone Modulation and Intermediate Tissues Cartilage from Fibrous Tissue and Metaplasia Metaplasia of Epithelial Cells to Chondroblasts or Osteoblasts Chondroid Teleosts Mammals Chondroid Bone Teleosts Mammals Chondroid Bone and Pharyngeal Jaws Tissues Intermediate Between Bone and Dentine Dentine Cementum Enameloid: a Tissue Intermediate Between Dentine and Enamel Chapter 6 – An Evolutionary Perspective Fossilized Skeletal Tissues All Four Skeletal Tissues are Ancient Evolutionary Experimentation Intermediate Tissues in Fossil Agnatha Dinosaur Bone Developing Fossils Problematica Palaeopathlogy Conodonts Part III – UNUSUAL MODES OF SKELETOGENESIS Chapter 7 – Horns and Ossicones Horns Distribution of Horns as Organs Bovidae Rhinos Titanotheres Pronghorn Antelopes Giraffes Horn as a Tissue Development and Growth of Horns Chapter 8 – Antlers Antlers Size and Absence Initiation of Antler Formation Pedicle Formation The Antler Bud and Dermal-Epidermal Interactions Hormonal Control of Pedicle Development and Growth Antler Regeneration The Shedding Cycle Histogenesis of Antlers White-tailed Deer, American Elk, European Fallow and Roe Deer Rocky Mountain Mule Deer Sika Deer Hormones, Photoperiod and Antler growth Photoperiod and Testosterone Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin Chapter 9 – Tendons and Sesamoids Tendons and Skeletogenesis Fibrocartilage in Tendons Rodent Achilles Tendons Ossification of Avian Tendons Formation and Composition of Tendon Fibrocartilages Condensation Scleraxis Composition Sesamoids Amphibians Reptiles Birds Teleosts PART IV – STEM CELLS Chapter 10 – Embryonic Stem Cells Stem Cells Set-aside Cells? Stem Cells for Periosteal Osteogenesis in Long Bones Modulation of Synthetic Activity and Differentiative Pathways of Cell Populations Fibroblast-Chondroblast Modulation Modulation of Glyocaminoglycan Synthesis Modulation of Synthetic Activity and Differentiative Pathways in Single Cells Degradative Activity Chapter 11 – Stem Cells in Adults Fibroblast Colony-Forming Cells Osteogenic Precursor Cells Clonal Analysis Lineages of Cells Dexamethasone Epithelial Induction of Ectopic Bone Transitional Epithelium of the Urinary Bladder Epithelial Cell Lines PART V – SKELETOGENIC CELLS Chapter 12?Osteo- and Chondroprogenitor Cells Identifying Osteo- and Chondroprogenitor cells Execrable Terminology Features Cell Cycle Dynamics Bipotential Progenitor Cells for Osteo- and Chondrogenesis Bipotential Cell Populations or Bipotential Cells? Uncovering Bipotentiality Discovering Bipotentiality Biochemical and Metabolic Markers Collagen Types The Tumor Suppressor Gene p53 Condylar Cartilage on the Condylar Process of the Mammalian Dentary Histodifferentiation and Scurvy One or Two Cell Populations Evidence Against Bipotentiality Evidence Supporting Bipotentiality All or Some? Secondary Cartilage on Avian Membrane Bones Chapter 13 – Dedifferentiation Provides Progenitor Cells for Jaws and Long Bones Condylar Cartilage of the Mammalian Temporomandibular Joint The TMJ Hypertrophic Chondrocytes Survive Hypertrophic Chondrocytes Transform to OPCs Meckel's Cartilages Mammalian Meckel?s Dedifferentiation During Endochondral Bone Formation Rodent Ribs Mice Rats Appendicular Long Bones Enzyme Activity Evidence from 3H-Thymidine-Labelling and Other Approaches Murine Interpubic Joints Chapter 14 – Dedifferentiation and Urodele Limb Regeneration Dedifferentiation Morphological Dedifferentiation Functional Dedifferentiation Hyaluronan Blastema Formation Aneurogenic Limbs More than One Cell Fate Myoblast and Chondroblast Fates Factors Controlling Dedifferentiation Innervation Aneurogenic Limbs ProliferationNot the Stump Electrical Signals? Hox Genes FgfR1 and FgfR2 Radical Fringe Why can?t Frogs Regenerate? Augmenting Regeneration Finger Tips of Mice, Monkeys and Men Chapter 15 – Cells to Make and Cells to Break: Clasts and Blasts Resorption Coupling Bone Resorption to Bone Formation Coupling Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts Some Molecular Players When Coupling Goes Awry TRAP-staining for Osteoclasts Mammalian Osteoclasts Teleost Osteoclasts Nitric Oxide – It?s a Gas Progenitor Cells for Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts Japanese Quail-domestic Fowl Chimaeras Osteopetrosis and Osteoclast Origins Osteoclast-Phagocyte-Macrophage or Osteoclast-Monocyte Lineages? Phagocyte/Macrophage Origin Interleukins IL-1 IL-6 IL-10 Evidence Against Monocytes Evidence for Monocytes Chondroclasts and Osteoclasts Synovial Cells? PART VI – EMBRYONIC ORIGINS Chapter 16 – Skeletal Origins: Somitic Mesoderm Somitic Mesoderm and the Origin of the Vertebrae Paraxial Mesoderm ?> Somites Sclerotome Formation and Migration Resegmentation Somitic Contribution to Limb Buds Formation of Muscle Innervation and Myogenesis Signals to Initiate a Limb Bud A Comment on the Pectoral Girdle The Clavicle: Even More Surprising Humans Other Mammals Mammals that Lack Clavicles Birds Wishbone or Clavicles Chapter 17 – Skeletal Origins: Neural Crest Different Mesenchyme, Same Tissues Neural Crest as a Source of Skeletal Cells Evidence of Skeletogenic Potential Ablation and Transplantation Experiments Marker Experiments 3H-thymidine Xenopus laevis-Xenopus borealis Chimaeras Quail-chick Chimaeras Genetic Markers for Murine Neural Crest Information from Mutants Regionalization of the Cranial Neural Crest The Ventral Neural Tube Migration of NCC: the Role of the Extracellular Matrix Chapter 18 – Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions: Jaws Urodele Amphibians: Chondrogenesis Avian Mandibular Skeleton: Chondrogenesis and Osteogenesis Isolated Mesenchyme – Chondrogenesis Isolated Mesenchyme – Osteogenesis Ruling out any Role for Meckel?s Cartilage Molecular Mechanisms Osteogenesis in Avian Maxillary Arch Skeleton Mammalian Mandibular Skeleton Endothelin-1 The Dlx Family and Craniofacial Development Teleost Mandibular Arch Skeleton Fgf Hoxd-4 and Retinoic Acid Limb Development Craniofacial Development Fish Endothelin-1 (En-1) Mutants Lateral Line, Neuromasts and Dermal Bone Hope from a Single Trout Teratomas Germ-Layer Combinations Mesenchyme Signals to Epithelium Specificity of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions PART VII – GETTING STARTED Chapter 19 – The Membranous Skeleton: Condensations The Membranous Skeleton Congenital hydrocephalus (ch) Characterizing Condensations How Condensations Arise Altered Mitotic Activity Changing Cell Density Aggregation and/or Failure to Disperse Limb Buds and Limb Regeneration Molecular Control Establishing Boundaries Syndecan and Tenascin Fgfs Wnt-7a Chapter 20 – From Condensation to Differentiation Condensation Growth Lessons from Mutants talpid3 bpH Adhere, Proliferate and Grow Gap Junctions Limb Bud Mesenchyme Craniofacial Mesenchyme Transcription Factors and Hox genes Position and Shape Establishing Condensation Size Bmps Fibronectin Hyaluronan Extrinsic Control From Condensation to Overt Differentiation The Molecular Cascades Bmps Tenascin and N-CAM Runx-2 Chapter 21 – Skulls, Eyes and Ears: Condensations and Tissue Interactions The Bony Skull Avian Skull Development Mammalian Skull Development The Cartilaginous Skull Type II Collagen Otic, Optic and Nasal Capsules The Otic Vesicle Morphogenesis Tympanic Cartilages Scleral Cartilage Heterogeneity Chondrogenic Mesenchyme Chondrogenic Mesenchyme Morphogenesis Scleral Ossicles Ossicle Number Scleral Papillae An Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interaction Scaleless Mutant Fowl A Role for Tenascin? PART VIII – SIMILARITY AND DIVERSITY Chapter 22 ?Chondrocyte Diversity Segregation from Precursors Perichondria Morphogenetic Specificity Cartilages of Different Embryological Origins Chondrocyte Hypertrophy Type X Collagen Discovery and Regulation of Synthesis Syndromes and Mutations Type X Does Not Always Indicate Hypertrophy Regulation of Chondrocyte Hypertrophy Tgf-? Bmps Type X and Mineralization Matrix Vesicles Hypertrophic Chondrocytes and Subperiosteal Ossification Brachypod (bpH) in mice Chapter 23 – Cartilage Diversity Sternal Chondrocytes Synthesis of Collagen and GAG Differential expression of Type II Collagen Differential Synthesis and Organization of Collagen Types Type X Collagen and Hypertrophy Fibronectin Nanomelia Tumour Invasion Vascularity Resisting Vascular Invasion Inhibitors of Angiogenesis and Vascular Invasion Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (Vegf) PTH-PTHrP Interpubic Joints and the Transformation of Cartilage to Ligament Cartilage ?> Ligament Mediation by Oestrogen and Relaxin Chapter 24 ?Osteoblast and Osteocyte Diversity Osteocytic Osteolysis Initiating Osteogenesis in vitro from Embryonic Mesenchyme Osteogenic Cells in Vitro Folded Periostea Establishing Osteoblasts/Osteogenesis in vitro Calvarial Osteoblasts in vitro Isolating Subpopulations of Calvarial Osteogenic Cells Chondrogenesis from Osteogenic Cells Clonal Cultures Chapter 25 – Bone Diversity Heterogeneity of Response to Sodium Fluoride Enhanced Proliferation and Osteogenesis Interaction with Hormonal Action Osteoporosis Chondrogenesis Mineralization Mechanical Properties of Bone Alveolar Bone of Mammalian Teeth Origin Physiology and Circadian Rhythms Penile and Clitoral Cartilages and Bones Os penis Os clitoris Hormonal Control Digits and Penile Bones Oestrogen-Stimulated Deposition of Medullary Bone in Laying Hens Oestrogen-Stimulated Resorption of Innominate Bones in Mice PART IX – MAINTAINING CARTLAGE IN GOOD TIMES AND BAD Chapter 26 – Maintaining Differentiated Chondrocytes Differentiated Chondrocytes Synthesis and Deposition of Cartilaginous Extracellular Matrix Synthesis of Chondroitin Sulphate Synthesis of Type-II Collagen Synthesis of Collagen and Chondroitin Sulfate by the Same Chondrocyte Collagen Gel Culture Feedback Control of the Synthesis of Glycosaminoglycans Evidence from Organ Culture Evidence from Chondrocyte Cell Cultures Interactions Between Glycosaminoglycans and Collagens within the ECM Synthesis of Collagen and CS are Regulated Independently Hypertrophy The Interactive Extracellular Matrix Chapter 27 – Maintenance Awry: Achondroplasia Genetic Disorders of Collagen Metabolism Cartilage Anomaly (can) in Mice Achondroplasia (ac) in Rabbits Achondroplasia (cn) in Mice FgfR-3 Chondrodysplasia (cho) in Mice Sprouty Brachymorphic (bm) Mice Stumpy (stm) Mice Nanomelia (nm) in Domestic Fowl Induced Micromelia Metabolic Regulation and Stability of Differentiation Chapter 28 – Restarting Mammalian Articular Chondrocytes Mammalian Articular Chondrocytes in Vitro A Role for Oxygen Responsiveness to Environmental Signals Mechanisms of Articular Cartilage Repair Dividing Again in vitro Dividing Again in vivo DNA Synthesis vs. Division Osteotomy and Trauma Transcription Factor Chapter 29 – Repair of Fractures and Regeneration of Growth Plates A Brief History of Fracture Repair Standardizing the Fracture Motion Non-unions and Persistent Non-unions Growth Factors and Fracture Repair Bmps Jump-Starting Repair Regeneration of Growth Plates in Rats, Opossums and Men PART X- GROWING TOGETHER Chapter 30 – Initiating Skeletal Growth What is Growth? Numbers of Stem Cells Cell movement and Cell Viability Epithelia and Fgf/FgfR-2 Metabolic Regulation Creeper (Cp) Fowl Tibia/Fibula Growth Retardation A Growth Inhibitor Mechanical Stimulation and Chondroblast Differentiation/Growth Mechanical Stimuli and Metabolic Activity Transduction Membrane Potential Skeletal Responses Mediated by cAMP Matrix Synthesis and Condensation Hormones Teeth and Alveolar Bone Electrical Stimulation cAMP and Prechondroblast Proliferation Long Bones Limb Regeneration Condylar Cartilage Chapter 31 – Form, Polarity and Long-Bone Growth Fundamental Form Polarity Polarized Cells Long Bone Growth Growth Plates Growth Plate Dynamics New Cells, Bigger Cells and Matrix Cell Proliferation Birds and Mammals Clones and Timing Hormonal Involvement Growth at Opposite Ends Diurnal and Circadian Rhythyms Rhythms are Under Hormonal Control A role for the periosteum in Regulation the Growth Plate? Periosteal Sectioning Feedback Control Chapter 32 – Long Bone Growth: a Case of Crying Wolff? Wolff, von Meyer or Roux Response to Pressure Continuous or Intermittent Mechanical Stimuli Scaling and Variation: When Wolff meets the Dwarfs Gravity Transduction of Mechanical Stimuli PART XI – STAYING APART Chapter 33 – The Temporomandibular Joint and Synchondroses The Mammalian Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) Mechanical Factors The Condylar Process The Angular Process Diet Other Functional Approaches Cranial Synchondroses As Pacemakers Limited Growth Potential As Adaptive Chapter 34 – Sutures and Craniosynostosis Sutural Growth as Secondary and Adaptive Working with the Functional Matrix Sutural Cartilage The Dura Craniosynostosis Msx-2 Fgf Receptors Sutural Growth Sutural Fusion PART XII – LIMB BUDS Chapter 35 – The Limb Field and the AER The Mesodermal Limb Field Ectodermal Responsiveness Mesoderm Specifies Fore vs. Hindlimb Roles for the Ectoderm Associated with the Limb Field Limb Bud Growth Cell Proliferation Suppressing the Flank Mitotic Rate in Limb Mesenchyme Proximo-Distal Patterning of the Limb Skeleton Mesenchymal Factors Maintain the AER AEMF The PNZ Specificity of Limb-Bud Epithelium Specificity of Distal Limb Mesenchyme The Temporal Component A Mechanical Role for the Epithelium Chapter 36 – Adding or Deleting an AER AER Regeneration Experimental Removal of the AER Failure to Maintain the AER: the wingless (wl) Mutant Mutual Interaction Experimental Addition of an AER Mutants with Duplicated Limbs An Enlarged AER Duplicating the AER Narrow or Subdivided AERs Chapter 37 – AERs in Limbed and Limbless Tetrapods AERs Across the Tetrapods Amphibians Anurans Urodeles Reptiles Mammals Mice Chimaeras Humans Limbless Tetrapods Evolutionary Patterns Gaining Limbs Back Ecological Correlates of Limblessness The Developmental Basis of Limblessness in Snakes and Legless Lizards Inability to Maintain an AER Molecular Mechanisms PART XIII – LIMBS AND LIMB SKELETONS Chapter 38 – Axes and Polarity Establishing Axes and Polarity The A-P Axis and the ZPA A Role for Fgf-2 dHAND and shh Wnts and Fgf ZPAs Abound D-V Polarity P-D Polarity and the Progress Zone Extension to Amphibian Limb Regeneration Connecting D-V and P-D Polarity Thalidomide and Limb Defects Time of Action Mode of Action Chapter 39 – Patterning Limbs and Limb Skeletons Morphogenesis and Growth Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis) Posterior and Anterior Necrotic Zones (PNZ, ANZ) Interdigital Cell Death A Role for BmpR-1 The Opaque Patch Cell Adhesion and Morphogenesis: Talpid (ta) Mutant Fowl Talpid2 Talpid3 Chapter 40 – Before Limbs There Were Fins Dorsal Median Unpaired Fins Teleost Fish Life Style Developmental Origins Evolutionary Origins Paired Fins Fin Buds and Fin Folds Fin Skeletons Retinoic Acid ?Regeneration A retinoic Acid-shh Link Fin Regeneration Fins ?> Suckers Fins ?> Limbs From Many to Fewer Digits PART XTV – BACKBONES AND TAILS Chapter 41 – Vertebral Chondrogenesis: Spontaneous or Not? Self Differentiation or Induction? Morphogenesis Spinal Ganglia and Vertebral Morphogenesis Chondrogenesis in vitro Spontaneous Chondrogenesis Environmental Influences Cell Division and Cell Death Chapter 42 ?The Search for the Magic Bullet Integrity of Notochord/Spinal Cord and Vertebral Morphogenesis Fish Skeletal Defects For How Long are Notochord and Spinal Cord Active? Can Dermamyotome or Lateral Plate Mesoderm Chondrify? The Search for the Magic Bullet A Role for Ectoderm? Cartilage Cells as Cartilage Inducers Active Extracellular Matrices Chondrocyte Extracellular Matrix Notochord and Spinal Cord Extracellular Matrices Glycosaminoglycans Collagens Function of Notochord and Spinal Cord Matrix Products Key Roles for Pax-1 and Pax-9 Conclusions Chapter 43 – Tail Buds, Tails and Tail-lessness Embryological Origin The Ventral Epithelial Ridge (VER) Tbx Genes Tail Growth Genes or Environment Temperature Temperature-induced Change in Vertebral Number Natural Variation and Adaptive Value Studies with Teleost Fish Studies with Avian Embryos Studies with Mammals Studies with Amphibian Embryos Temperature Plus... Taillessness And Thereby Hangs a Tail Fish Tails Lizards Tails: Autotomy PART XV – EVOLUTIONARY SKELETAL BIOLOGY Chapter 44 – Evolutionary Experimentation Revisited Variation Variation of Individual Elements Variation that Tests an Hypothesis Pattern Variation Adaptive Value Miniaturization Heterochrony Process Heterochrony Coupling and Uncoupling Dermal and Endochondral Ossification Primates Neomorphs The Preglossale of the Common Pigeon Digits Secondary Jaw Articulations A Boid Intramaxillary Joint Regenerated Joints Wishbones Limb Rudiments in Whales Turtle Shells Atavisms Limb Skeletal Elements in Whales Mammalian Teeth Teleosts and Taxic Atavisms Late-developing Bones in Anurans Neomorph or Atavism?

Bibliographic details
Hardbound, 792 pages, publication date: JUN-2005
ISBN-13: 978-0-12-319060-4
ISBN-10: 0-12-319060-6
Imprint: ACADEMIC PRESS

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