Transportation, Land Use, and Environmental Planning

Part I Motivations

1. The changing nature of work and time use: implications for travel demand

Noreen McDonald, Ke Peng

1 Introduction 3

2 Background 4

• 2.1 Changing young adult labor market 4
• 2.2 Changing young adult travel 5

3 Research questions 5

4 Data and methods 6

• 4.1 Segmentation 6
• 4.2 Sample characteristics 8

5 Results 9

• 5.1 Employment and economic characteristics, 2003–15 9
• 5.2 Work time use segmentation 9
• 5.3 Commuting in peak periods 11

6 Discussion and conclusions 12

References 14

2. Integrating health into metropolitan transportation planning

Catherine Ross, Peter Hylton, Farran (Fangru) Wang 1

Overview 17

2 Previous work 18

• 2.1 Health and the built environment 18
• 2.2 Health in the planning process 19
• 2.3 Health impact assessment (HIA) 20

3 Methodology 21

4 Findings 22

• 4.1 Target areas 23
• 4.2 Project selection 24
• 4.3 Organizational structure 26

vi Contents

5 Policy implications 30

6 Conclusions 31

References 33

3. Transportation and land use as social determinants of health: the case of arterial roads

Carolyn McAndrews

1 Introduction 35

2 Neighborhoods and health 36

• 2.1 Poverty and segregation 36
• 2.2 Neighborhood physical and social environments 37

3 Transportation and land use as social determinants of health in neighborhood 39

3.1 Chronic stress 39

3.2 Behavior 41

4 The case of major arterial roads 41

• 4.1 Streets and land uses that associate with neglect and physical decay 42
• 4.2 Barriers that lead to community severance and social isolation 44

5 Implications for policy, planning, and design 45

• 5.1 Traffi c operations and design strategies 45
• 5.2 Greening and cues to care 46
• 5.3 Infi ll, revitalization, and community development strategies 46

6 Conclusion 47

References 48

4. Transit-oriented displacement: the role of transit access in the housing market

Karen Chapple, Miriam Zuk

1 Introduction 55

2 TOD and displacement: understanding the relationships 56

3 Defi ning and describing TOD and displacement 57

3.1 Data sources and terms 57

3.2 TOD areas in the Bay Area 59

4 Modeling gentrifi cation, exclusion, and displacement 60

• 4.1 Gentrifi cation 60
• 4.2 Exclusion 62
• 4.3 Changes in affordable housing 62
• 4.4 Loss of low-income households 62

5 Anti-displacement and housing affordability policies 65

• 5.1 Overview of anti-displacement and housing affordability policies 66
• 5.2 Housing affordability and anti-displacement policies in the Bay Area 68
• 5.3 Addressing displacement in transit-oriented development 68

6 Conclusion 77

References 78

PART II Strategies

5. Urban design for sustainable and livable communities: the case of Vancouver

Elizabeth Macdonald

1 Introduction 83

2 Urban context and overview of Vancouver’s plans and policies in the two eras 85

3 Downtown neighborhood planning in the “Living First” era 90

• 3.1 Downtown South 90
• 3.2 False Creek North 92
• 3.3 Southeast False Creek 95 3.4 Results 96

4 Neighborhood planning in outlying areas during the EcoDensity era 98

5 Vancouver going forward 101

6 Conclusions 101

References 103

6. Measuring land use performance: from policy to plan to outcome

Gian-Claudia Sciara

1 Introduction 105

2 Government action and land use in the United States 106

3 The effectiveness of governmental efforts to shape land use in the United States 108

• 3.1 State growth management policies 111
• 3.2 Regional efforts to infl uence local land use and development 114
• 3.3 Local efforts to infl uence land use and development 116

4 Four frameworks for evaluating land use plans and policy 118

• 4.1 Process-based frameworks for local plan and policy evaluation 118
• 4.2 Goal-based frameworks for local plan and policy evaluation 120
• 4.3 Implementation-based frameworks for local plan and policy evaluation 120
• 4.4 Outcome-based evaluations: monitoring key variables 121

5 Discussion and conclusions 123

References 125viii Contents

7. The transit metropolis: a 21st century perspective

Robert Cervero

1 Introduction 131

2 The transit metropolis: core principles 131

3 Megatrends and shifting lifestyle preferences 133

• 3.1 Aging societies 133
• 3.2 The Millennials and the shifting economy 134

4 Transformative technologies and urban futures 137

• 4.1 Smart mobility and autonomous vehicles 137
• 4.2 Ride-hailing and shared-ride services 138
• 4.3 Smart pricing and technologies 141

4.4 E-commerce 143

5 21st century transit metropolises as hybrids 144

References 146

8. Livability as a framework for understanding and guiding transportation and land use integration

Bruce Appleyard, Alexander R. Frost

1 Introduction 151

2 Background and previous work on the topic 152

3 Methods and fi ndings 155

• 3.1 Defi nitions, typology, and performance measures 156
• 3.2 Data 157
• 3.3 Analysis of station area performance using quality of life proxy measures 161

4 Discussion and policy implications 163

References 165

9. Making US cities pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly

Susan Handy

1 Introduction 169

2 Reworking car-friendly cities 170

• 2.1 Distances 171
• 2.2 Protection 173
• 2.3 Integration 175

3 Unleashing the potential of bicycling 176

4 Elevating pedestrians and bicyclists in regional planning 179

5 Conclusions 181

References 182

10. Parking: not as bad as you think, worse than you realize

Rachel Weinberger

1 Introduction 189

2 The parking problem 190

3 Problem: your parking demand impinges my supply and 30% of traffi c is searching for parking 191

4 Solution: provide more off-street parking 193

5 Impact of more parking 195

• 5.1 Developer impacts 195
• 5.2 Parking and car ownership 195

6 The impact of parking on the built environment, travel behavior and downtown economies 196

7 Is the problem well defi ned? 197

8 Is there a parking shortage? 197

9 How much driving is cruising after all? 199 '

10 Parking problem redefi ned 200

11 Solutions redefi ned 200

• 11.1 Performance parking 201
• 11.2 Controls on supply, unbundled, and shared parking 201

12 Conclusion 202

References 203

11. Traffi c management strategies for urban networks: smart city mobility technologies

Alexander Skabardonis

1 Existing traffi c management strategies in urban networks 207

2 Emerging applications: the promise 209

3 Emerging applications: the implementation challenge 212

• 3.1 Technology requirements 212
• 3.2 Traffi c analysis tools 213
• 3.3 Relationship with transportation planning studies and plans 214
• 3.4 Communicating the benefi ts of new technologies to decision-makers 214

References 215

12. Vehicle technologies for achieving near and longer term fuel economy and climate goals

Timothy E. Lipman

1 Introduction 217

2 The global oil supply and demand conundrum 218

3 Regulatory approaches for reducing motor vehicle emissions and energy use 221

• 3.1 Emissions and energy standards in the US 221
• 3.2 Motor vehicle emissions and energy programs in other countries 225

4 Additional strategies for improved fuel economy and reduced GHG emissions 227

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5 Recent research on zero-tailpipe emission vehicles 229

6 Conclusions 234

References 235

13. Sharing strategies: carsharing, shared micromobility (bikesharing and scooter sharing), transportation network companies, microtransit, and other innovative mobility modes

Susan Shaheen, Adam Cohen, Nelson Chan, Apaar Bansal

1 Introduction 237

2 Emerging shared mobility services 238

3 Carsharing 240

• 3.1 Roundtrip carsharing 240
• 3.2 One-way carsharing 242
• 3.3 Personal vehicle sharing (PVS) 243

4 Shared micromobility (bikesharing and scooter sharing) 245

• 4.1 Scooter sharing (standing electric and moped-style scooters) 246
• 4.2 Bikesharing 246

5 Ridesharing 248

6 On-demand ride services 248

• 6.1 Transportation network company (TNC) services 248
• 6.2 Ridesplitting (also known as pooling) 252
• 6.3 E-hail services 253

7 Microtransit 253

8 Courier network services 255

• 8.1 P2P delivery services 256
• 8.2 Paired on-demand passenger ride and courier services 256

9 Trip planning apps 257

• 9.1 Single-mode trip planning 257
• 9.2 Multi-modal trip aggregators 257
• 9.3 Gamifi cation 258

10 Conclusion 258

References 259

14. The role of behavioral economics and social nudges in sustainable travel behavior

William Riggs

1 Statement of the problem 263

2 Previous work on the topic 264

3 Experiments 266

• 3.1 Experiment 1: incentives for giving up driving 267
• 3.2 Experiment 2: perceptions of street safety for cyclists 268

4 Findings 269

• 4.1 Findings from experiment 1 269
• 4.2 Findings from experiment 2 270

5 Findings and policy implications 272

References 273

Part III Broadening the scope

15. Energy sources for sustainable transportation and urban development

Blas L. Pérez Henríquez

1 Introduction: the energy outlook and emerging challenges 281

2 Global decarbonization efforts 283

3 Subnational and non-governmental action for clean energy and greenhouse gas reductions 286

4 Case example: California’s emissions and energy policies for a clean future 289

5 Implications for energy planning 292

References 297

16. Balancing education opportunities with sustainable travel and development

Carrie Makarewicz

1 Introduction 299

2 Country differences in school funding, governance, and assignment policies 302

3 Reasons for differential school outcomes 304

• 3.1 White fl ight and urban decline 304
• 3.2 School siting standards and school travel in the United States 309

4 Attempts to address urban school decline and school sprawl 312

• 4.1 Addressing school decline through in-school reforms and school choice 312
• 4.2 Addressing school siting and transportation policies 315

5 Policy implications and alternative approaches 317

• 5.1 Improving urban schools through community connections 317
• 5.2 Integrating school planning with land use & transportation planning 320
• 5.3 Federal opportunity for all policies: a new era of school desegregation? 321

6 Conclusion 322

References 324

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17. Planners’ presence in planning for water quality and availability

Caitlin Dyckman

1 Introduction/statement of the problem 333

• 1.1 How water is used and monitored 334
• 1.2 The water problems: nationally and internationally 334
• 1.3 Research objectives 337

2 Previous work on the topic 338

• 2.1 States and planners in US water planning 338
• 2.2 Water demand management and devolution in water quality control 342
• 2.3 Water management problems, their import for planners, and emerging policy approaches to address them: collaborative watershed management, social-ecological resilience (SER), and sustainable commons management (SCM) 344

3 Methodology 347

4 Findings 349

• 4.1 Planners’ roles in water conservation 350
• 4.2 Planners’ roles in watershed-based planning 362
• 4.3 State comprehensive water planning legislation 363

5 Policy implications 386

6 Conclusions 387

References 388

Part IV Implementation issues: the case of California

18. Integrated transport and land use planning aiming to reduce GHG emissions: International comparisons

Andrea Broaddus

1 Introduction 399

2 What legal regulatory frameworks for transportation and land use planning are in use? 400

• 2.1 Roots of centralized regional land use and transport planning in Europe 400
• 2.2 Trends: devolution and regionalism 405

3 What policies linking transportation and land use planning to CO2 emissions are in place? 409

4 What types of projects and development have resulted in practice, and what are the barriers to implementation? 411

• 4.1 Planning approaches 411
• 4.2 Plans and Projects 412
• 4.3 Barriers 413

5 Conclusion 416

References 417

19. Defi ning TOD: learning from California law

Gregory L. Newmark, William L. Kaplowitz

1 Introduction 419

2 Background 420

3 Methodology 421

4 California TOD legislation and state programs 423

5 Defi nitional issues 427

• 5.1 Defi ning what qualifi es as transit 427
• 5.2 Establishing the transit-oriented zone 432
• 5.3 What land uses are transit-oriented? 435

6 Conclusions 436

References 437

20. Sustainability planning by Metropolitan Planning Organizations: California and national trends

Elisa Barbour

1 Introduction 439

2 Sustainability planning by MPOs 440

• 2.1 Motives for sustainability planning by MPOs 440
• 2.2 MPOs and sustainable development 443
• 2.3 Challenges of MPO sustainability planning: ambitious goals, modest means 444
• 3 Measures for evaluating MPO sustainability planning 445

4 Findings on sustainability planning by large US MPOs 447

5 Sustainability planning by California MPOs 456

• 5.1 Has SB 375 made a difference? 457
• 5.2 SB 375 comes under scrutiny 460

6 Conclusion 462 7 List of RTPs 464

References 465

21. The role of county-level agencies in coordinating local climate planning in California

Elizabeth Mattiuzzi

1 Introduction 469

2 Background 470

• 2.1 California’s rapid growth and its jobs-housing mismatch 470
• 2.2 SB 375 as a change in direction 472

3 County-level agencies’ roles in California transportation and housing 472

• 3.1 County transportation authorities 473
• 3.2 Councils of governments 474

4 Methodology 476

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5 Evidence for subregional coordination of local climate planning and SB 375 implementation 477

• 5.1 Surveying planners on SB 375 implementation 477
• 5.2 The relationship between collaboration and implementation 480
• 5.3 Case studies of subregional coordination of climate planning 481

6 Conclusion and policy implications 493

References 494

22. California’s SB 375 and the pursuit of sustainable and affordable development

Sarah Mawhorter, Amy Martin, Carol Galante

1 Introduction 497

2 Background 498

• 2.1 Climate change and housing affordability crises converge 498
• 2.2 Overview of SB 375 and housing 499
• 2.3 Assessments of SB 375 to date 500

3 Research approach 501

4 Analysis 502

• 4.1 SB 375 implementation through RHNA has limited potential to increase infi ll development in most regions 502
• 4.2 Incentives for SCS implementation are limited and vary by region 505
• 4.3 CEQA streamlining to enable SCS implementation 514

5 Conclusion 516

• 5.1 Alignment of housing and transportation goals 516
• 5.2 Need for more enforcement 517
• 5.3 Need for more incentives 517
• 5.4 Need for more capacity 518
• 5.5 Need for more accountability 518
• 5.6 Looking ahead 519

References 519

23. Citizen mobilization in digital and analog: when regional planning lands in Marin County, California, is it a carrot or a stick painted orange?

Karen Trapenberg Frick

1 Statement of the problem 523

2 Conceptual framework—the (virtual) cycle of organizing and adapting in digital 528

3 Research design 531

4 The opposition to Plan Bay Area in Marin County 532

5 Planning proponents in response 537

6 Discussion 540

• 6.1 Impacts on planning and projects 541
• 6.2 Implications for scholarship and practice 543

References 546

PART V Conclusions

24. The role of modern research universities in advancing innovative transportation infrastructure renewal

Bjorn Birgisson

1 Background 555

2 Key trends affecting university-based research on transportation infrastructure renewal 556

3 Changing nature of research universities 557

4 Accelerating globalization 558

5 Accelerating rate of technological change 559

6 Growth in multidisciplinary research and innovation 559

• 6.1 Smart Infrastructure 560
• 6.2 Manufacturing and automation for transportation infrastructure renewal 562
• 6.3 Resilient and critical infrastructure systems 563
• 6.4 Innovative fi nancing and procurement 564
• 6.5 New collaboration and societal engagement modes for university-based transportation researchers 565
• 6.6 Universities for the new knowledge society 565
• 6.7 Recommendations 566

References 567

Integrating transportation, land use, and environmental planning 569

Index 601