Thermodynamics of Clouds

IntroductionI. Ideas of Capillarity 1. Introduction 2. Surface Tension 3. Mechanical Equilibrium Conditions for a Surface 4. Equilibrium of an Edge 5. Contact Angle of a Fluid/Fluid Interface with the Surface of a Solid 6. Mechanical Work Done by a Capillary System 7. Surface Tension of a Crystal FaceII. Surface Model and Definitions of Adsorption, Surface Enthalpy, and Entropy 1. The Real System and the Simplified Model 2. Difficulties Inherent in the Use of the Surface ModelIII. Laws of Thermodynamics 1. Choice of Variables 2. First Law of Thermodynamics 3. Second Law of ThermodynamicsIV. Fundamental Formulas in Terms of Intensive Variables 1. Aims of the Chapter 2. Variables on Which the Surface Functions of State Depend 3. Intensive Properties of the Surface 4. Transformation from Intensive to Extensive Variables 5. Specific Surface Functions of State 6. Fundamental Formulas Relating to the Surface Phase 7. Fundamental Formulas in Terms of Intensive VariablesV. Equilibrium States 1. Affinities of Adsorption 2. Conditions for Adsorption Equilibrium 3. Equilibrium Displacement 4. Phase Rule 5. Extension of Duhem's Theorem to Systems Containing SurfacesVI. Adiabatic TransformationsVII. Examination of Some Approximations or Hypotheses 1. Aims of the Chapter 2. Humid Air Can Be Treated as a Mixture of Two Perfect Gases: Dry Air and Water Vapor 3. The Surface Tension of a Droplet Can Be Considered Independent of the Radius of Curvature 4. Adsorptions Are Negligible in Comparison with the Masses Involved, and Adsorption of Atmospheric Components Has Negligible Effect on the Surface Tension 5. The Lateral Functions αy',βy',λy' and αy", βy",λy" Can Be Neglected 6. The Heat Capacities at Constant Pressure of Dry Air and Water Vapor, of Which the Atmosphere Is Composed, Are Constants 7. The Heat Capacities of Pure Liquid and Solid Water Vary Only Slightly with TemperatureVIII. Study of a Droplet Suspended in the Atmosphere 1. Statement of the Problem 2. Influence of Curvature on the Saturation Pressure of a Droplet 3. Influence of Other Components on the Heat of Vaporization of Water from a Plane Surface 4. Influence of Curvature on the Heat of Vaporization of a Droplet 5. Influence of Curvature on the Equilibrium Temperature of a Droplet 6. Stability of Equilibrium of a Droplet 7. Reversible Adiabatic TransformationsIX. Study of an Ice Crystal Suspended in the Atmosphere 1. Statement of the Problem 2. Influence of Radius on the Saturation Pressure Relative to an Ice Crystal 3. Influence of Radius on the Heat of Sublimation of an Ice Crystal 4. Influence of Radius on the Equilibrium Temperature of an Ice Crystal 5. Stability of Equilibrium of an Ice Crystal 6. Reversible Adiabatic TransformationsX. Temperature of Coexistence of a Droplet of Solution and a Crystal of Ice in the Atmosphere 1. Statement of the Problem 2. Droplet of Solution and Crystal of Ice Suspended in the Atmosphere 3. Ice Crystal Contained within a Droplet of Solution Suspended in the AtmosphereXI. Germs of Condensation and Crystallization 1. Definition of the Germ 2. Calculation of Radius of Germ 3. Formation of Germs, or Nucleation 4. Free Energy of Formation of a Drop Phase 5. Free Energy of Formation of a Crystal Phase 6. Free Energy of Formation in the Case When There Is Only a Single Component in the Drop or Crystal 7. Choice of Shape Factor for Ice CrystalsXII. Equilibrium Populations of Embryos. Calculation of Number of Germs as Limiting Case of Problem of Equilibrium 1. Introduction 2. Properties of Embryos Considered as Particles 3. Comparison between the System Containing Embryos Treated as Phases and the System of Particle Embryos 4. Equilibrium Populations of Embryos in a Liquid Mother Phase 5. Embryos and Germs of Ice in Pure Water 6. Embryos and Germs of Ice in Salt Water 7. Equilibrium Populations of Embryos in a Gaseous Mother PhaseXIII. Nucleation Rate 1. Definition of Nucleation Rate 2. Ratio of the Forward Rate w to the Reverse Rate w per Unit Surface Area 3. Kinetics of Nucleation 4. Nucleation of Water or Ice in Humid Air 5. Review of the Basic Elements of the Theory of Viscosity 6. Nucleation in a Pure Liquid 7. Nucleation in a Liquid Mixture 8. Experimental Tests in a Liquid Mother Phase 9. Calculation of Mean Freezing Temperature of Water Droplets 10. Values Used in Calculating Nucleation Rate and Freezing Temperature 11. Determination of Ice/Water Surface Tension0 12. Comparison of Values of Ice/Water Surface Tension Given by Various AuthorsList of SymbolsBibliographyAuthor IndexSubject Index