The Technical Applications of Radioactivity

Foreword to the First EditionForeword to the Second EditionForeword to the Third EditionNote on BibliographyAcknowledgements1. Introduction 1.1. The Importance of Radioactivity for Science and Industry 1.2. The Development of Knowledge about the Atomic Nucleus 1.3. Survey of the Applications of Radioactive Substances2. Fundamentals of Radioactivity 2.1. The Atom as a Planetary System 2.2. The Electrons in the Atoms 2.3. Molecules 2.4. Isotopy 2.5. Isotope Effects 2.6. Radioactivity 2.7. α-Radiation 2.8. β-Radiation 2.9. γ-Radiation 2.10. Radiation from the Extranuclear Region Due to Radioactivity 2.11. Energy of Radiations 2.12. Induced Nuclear Reactions 2.13. Nuclear Fission 2.14. Absorption of Radiation: Preliminary Remarks 2.15. Absorption of α-Radiation 2.16. Absorption of β-Radiation 2.17. Absorption of γ-Radiation 2.18. Radiation Dose 2.19. Decay of Radionuclides 2.20. Radioactive Equilibrium 2.21. Statistical Fluctuations of Radioactivity General References to Chapter 23. The Measurement of Radioactivity 3.1. Introductory Remarks 3.2. Ionization Chambers 3.3. Proportional Counters 3.4. Geiger Counters 3.4.1. Principles 3.4.2. Construction Types 3.5. Scintillation Counters 3.6. Photographic Detection Methods 3.7. Preparation of Solid Samples General References to Chapter 3 Literature on the Measurement of Radiocarbon and Tritium4. The Production and Chemistry of Radioelements 4.1. Production of Radionuclides 4.2. General Aspects of Radiochemistry 4.3. Radiochemical Procedures 4.4. Radiosyntheses General References to Chapter 45. The Radioactive Tracer Method 5.1. General Characteristics of the Tracer Method 5.2. Chemical Radiation Effects as a Disturbing Factor 5.3. The Emanation Method General References to Chapter 56. Application of Radioactivity in Chemical Analysis 6.1. Survey of the Types of Application 6.2. Determination of Natural Radioelements 6.3. Indicator Analysis 6.4. Analysis with Radioactive Reagents 6.5. Isotope Dilution Methods 6.6. Activation Analysis 6.6.1. Principle of the Method 6.6.2. Direct Measurement of Activity Compared with Measurement After Chemical Separation 6.6.3. Neutron Activation: General Remarks 6.6.4. Sensitivity of Activation Analysis with Neutrons 6.6.5. Examples of Activation Analysis with Neutrons 6.6.6. Activation with Ions 6.6.7. Activation by γ- and X-Radiation 6.7. Analysis by Absorption or Scattering of Nuclear Rays (Absorption Analysis) 6.7.1. Analysis by Neutron Attenuation 6.7.2. Analysis by Slowing-Down of Neutrons or Ions 6.7.3. Analysis by Absorption and Scattering of β-Rays 6.7.4. Analysis by Absorption of γ- and X-Rays 6.7.5. Analysis by Induced X-Ray Emission 6.7.6. Analysis by Luminescence Quenching References to Chapter 67. Application of Radioactivity in Mining and Oil Production 7.1. Mining 7.1.1. Analysis and Classification of Ores 7.1.2. Radionuclides in Coal Mining and Coke Production 7.1.3. Ore Dressing 7.2. Oil Prospecting 7.3. Bore-Hole Investigations by Measurement of Natural Radioactivity (Gamma-Logging, GL) 7.4. Bore-Hole Investigations with Radiation Sources 7.4.1. Neutron-Neutron-Logging (NNL) 7.4.2. Neutron-Gamma-Logging (NGL) 7.4.3. Activation Logging (AL) 7.4.4. Gamma-Gamma-Logging (GGL) 7.4.5. Gamma-Neutron-Logging (GNL) 7.4.6. Bore-Hole Accelerators 7.5. Bore-Hole Investigations by Introduction of Radionuclides 7.6. Application to Oil Pipe Lines References to Chapter 7Application of Radioactivity in the Metallurgical, Engineering and Electrical Industries 8.1. Metallurgy 8.1.1. Blast Furnace Operation 8.1.2. Steel Production 8.1.3. Extraction of Non-Ferrous Metals 8.1.4. Investigation of Metals (Analysis, Detection of Inclusions, Investigation of Plastic Deformation and Welding) 8.2. Diffusion in Metals 8.3. Composition of Alloy Phases 8.4. Abrasion and Wear of Metals 8.4.1. Investigations on Models with Simple Surfaces 8.4.2. Investigations of Metal Working Processes 8.4.3. Investigations on Machines Under Operating Conditions 8.5. Corrosion and Scaling of Metals 8.6. The Electrical Industries References to Chapter 89. Application of Radioactivity to General Problems of the Chemical Industry 9.1. Determination of Technically Important Physico-Chemical Quantities 9.1.1. Problems of Structure and Chemical Bonding 9.1.2. Solubilities 9.1.3. Formation of Complexes 9.1.4. Vapour Pressures 9.1.5. Adsorption 9.1.6. Diffusion, Heat Conduction and Viscosity 9.1.7. Surface Areas 9.1.8. Application of the Emanation Method 9.2. Elucidation of Reaction Mechanisms 9.2.1. General Kinetic Problems 9.2.2. Reaction Mechanisms in Organic Chemistry 9.2.3. Catalysis in Gas Reactions 9.2.4. Combustion Reactions 9.2.5. Inorganic Chemical Reactions 9.3. Chemical Process Technology 9.3.1. Mixing and Separation 9.3.2. Detection of Losses 9.3.3. Level Gauging and Checking of Equipment Assembly 9.3.4. Flow Velocities 9.3.5. Mechanisms of Flow 9.3.6. Leak Detection 9.3.7. Determination of the Volume of Vessels and of Phases 9.3.8. Testing of Filters and Measurement of Particle Size 9.4. Industrial Hygiene References to Chapter 910. Application of Radioactivity in Various Branches of the Chemical Industry 10.1. The Cellulose and Paper Industry 10.2. The Textile Industry 10.3. The Photographic Materials and Printing Industries 10.4. The Glass Industry 10.5. The Building Materials Industry 10.6. The Rubber and Plastics Industry 10.6.1. Quality Control 10.6.2. Study of Polymerization 10.6.3. Elucidation of Vulcanization 10.7. The Detergents Industry 10.8. The Pharmaceutical and Food Industries References to Chapter 1011. Application of Radioactivity in Agriculture and Forestry 11.1. Photosynthesis as the Basis of Agriculture and Forestry 11.2. Absorption, Transport and Excretion of Substances by Plants 11.2.1. Absorption Through the Roots 11.2.2. Translocation 11.2.3. Absorption Through Leaves 11.2.4. Excretion Processes 11.3. Studies with Fertilizers 11.3.1. General Considerations 11.3.2. Radiation Damage in Investigations with Fertilizers 11.3.3. Utilization of Individual Elements 11.3.4. Soil Condition 11.4. Animal Husbandry 11.5. Forestry and the Timber Industry 11.6. Pest Control 11.6.1. Absorption and Transport of Animal Pesticides 11.6.2. Absorption and Transport of Fungicides and Herbicides 11.6.3. Ecology of Animal Pests and of Other Animals References to Chapter 1112. Application of Radioactivity in Hydrology and Water Supply 12.1. Determination of Water Quality 12.2. Preparation and Measurement of Labelled Water 12.3. Tracing of Water 12.4. Flow Velocity in Water Courses 12.5. Hydrological Methods Based on Natural Tracers 12.6. Productivity of Waters 12.7. Movement of Sand and Gravel 12.8. Water Content of Soils References to Chapter 1213. Radiation Protection 13.1. Preliminary Remarks 13.2. The Concept of "Tolerance Dose" 13.3. External Radiation Exposure 13.4. Internal Radiation Exposure 13.5. Some Practical Advice 13.6. Work with High Activities References to Chapter 13Appendix 1: List of Radionuclides Important for Practical UseAppendix 2: Important Units and Conversion FactorsIndex