The Physics of Glaciers
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The Physics of Glaciers, Fourth Edition, discusses the physical principles that underlie the behavior and characteristics of glaciers. The term glacier refers to all bodies of ice created by the accumulation of snowfall, e.g., mountain glaciers, ice caps, continental ice sheets, and ice shelves. Glaciology—the study of all forms of ice—is an interdisciplinary field encompassing physics, geology, atmospheric science, mathematics, and others. This book covers various aspects of glacier studies, including the transformation of snow to ice, grain-scale structures and ice deformation, mass exchange processes, glacial hydrology, glacier flow, and the impact of climate change. The present edition features two new chapters: “Ice Sheets and the Earth System” and “Ice, Sea Level, and Contemporary Climate Change.” The chapter on ice core studies has been updated from the previous version with new material. The materials on the flow of mountain glaciers, ice sheets, ice streams, and ice shelves have been combined into a single chapter entitled “The Flow of Ice Masses.”
Key Features
- Completely updated and revised, with 30% new material including climate change
- Accessible to students, and an essential guide for researchers
- Authored by preeminent glaciologists
Readership
Graduate students and academic and professional researchers in the fields of glaciology, climatology, geophysics and geology.
Table of Contents
Preface to Fourth Edition
Preface to First Edition
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History and Perspective
1.3 Organization of the Book
Further Reading
Chapter 2 Transformation of Snow to Ice
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Snow, Firn, and Ice
2.2.1 Density of Ice
2.3 Zones in a Glacier
2.3.1 Distribution of Zones
2.4 Variation of Density with Depth in Firn
2.5 Snow to Ice Transformation in a Dry-snow Zone
2.5.1 Processes
2.5.2 Models of Density Profiles in Dry Firn
2.5.3 Reduction of Gas Mobility
2.6 Hoar Layers
2.7 Transformation When Meltwater Is Present
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Grain-Scale Structures and Deformation of Ice
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Properties of a Single Ice Crystal
3.2.1 Structure
3.2.2 Deformation of a Single Crystal
3.3 Polycrystalline Ice: Grain-scale Forms and Processes
3.3.1 Orientation Fabrics: Brief Description
3.3.2 Impurities and Bubbles
3.3.3 Texture and Recrystallization
3.3.4 Formation of C-axis Orientation Fabrics
3.3.5 Mechanisms of Polycrystalline Deformation
3.4 Bulk Creep Properties of Polycrystalline Ice
3.4.1 Strain Rate and Incompressibility
3.4.2 Deviatoric Stress
3.4.3 Bench-top Experiments: The Three Phases of Creep
3.4.4 Isotropic Creep Behavior
3.4.5 Controls on Creep Parameter A
3.4.6 Recommended Isotropic Creep Relation and Values for A
3.4.7 Anisotropic Creep of Ice
3.5 Elastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Ice
Appendix 3.1
Appendix 3.2: Data for Figure 3.16
Chapter 4 Mass Balance Processes: 1. Overview and Regimes
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Notes on Terminology
4.2 Surface Mass Balance
4.2.1 Surface Accumulation Processes
4.2.2 Surface Ablation Processes
4.2.3 Annual (Net) Balance and the Seasonal Cycle
4.2.4 Annual Glacier Balance and Average Specific Balances
4.2.5 Variation of Surface Balance with Altitude
4.2.6 Generalized Relation of Surface Balance to Temperature and Precipitation
4.2.7 Relation of Glacier-wide Balance to the Area-Altitude Distribution
4.3 Mass Balance Variations of Mountain Glaciers
4.3.1 Interannual Fluctuations of Balance
4.3.2 Cumulative Balance and Delayed Adjustments
4.3.3 Regional Variations of Mass Balance
4.4 Englacial Mass Balance
4.4.1 Internal Accumulation
4.4.2 Internal Ablation
4.5 Basal Mass Balance
4.5.1 Basal Accumulation
4.5.2 Basal Ablation
4.6 Mass Loss by Calving
4.6.1 The Calving Spectrum
4.6.2 Calving from Tidewater Glaciers
4.6.3 Calving from Ice Shelves
4.6.4 Calving Relations for Ice Sheet Models
4.7 Methods for Determining Glacier Mass Balance
4.8 Mass Balance Regimes of the Ice Sheets
4.8.1 Greenland Ice Sheet
4.8.2 Antarctic Ice Sheet
Further Reading
Chapter 5 Mass Balance Processes: 2. Surface Ablation and Energy Budget
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Radiation
5.1.2 Energy Budget of Earth’s Atmosphere and Surface
5.2 Statement of the Surface Energy Budget
5.2.1 Driving and Responding Factors in the Energy Budget
5.2.2 Melt and Warming Driven by Net Energy Flux
5.3 Components of the Net Energy Flux
5.3.1 Downward Shortwave Radiation
5.3.2 Reflected Shortwave Radiation
5.3.3 Longwave Radiation
5.3.4 Field Example, Net Radiation Budget
5.3.5 Subsurface Conduction and Radiation
5.3.6 Turbulent Fluxes
5.4 Relation of Ablation to Climate
5.4.1 Calculating Melt from Energy Budget Measurements
5.4.2 Simple Approaches to Modelling Melt
5.4.3 Increase of Ablation with Warming
5.4.4 Importance of the Frequency of Different Weather Conditions
v5.4.5 Energy Budget Regimes
Further Reading
Chapter 6 Glacial Hydrology
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Permeability of Glacier Ice
6.1.2 Effective Pressure
6.2 Features of the Hydrologic System
6.2.1 Surface (Supraglacial) Hydrology
6.2.2 Englacial Hydrology
6.2.3 Subglacial Hydrology
6.2.4 Runoff from Glaciers
6.3 The Water System within Temperate Glaciers
6.3.1 Direction of Flow
6.3.2 Drainage in Conduits
6.3.3 Drainage in Linked Cavities
6.3.4 Subglacial Drainage on a Soft Bed
6.3.5 Summary of Water Systems at the Glacier Bed
6.3.6 System Behavior
6.4 Glacial Hydrological Phenomena
6.4.1 Jökulhlaups
6.4.2 Antarctic Subglacial Lakes
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Basal Slip
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Measurements of Basal Velocity
7.1.2 Local vs. Global Control of Basal Velocity
7.2 Hard Beds
7.2.1 Weertman’s Theory of Sliding
7.2.2 Observations at the Glacier Sole
7.2.3 Improvements to Weertman’s Analysis
7.2.4 Discussion of Assumptions
7.2.5 Comparison of Predictions with Observations
7.2.6 How Water Changes Sliding Velocity on Hard Beds
7.2.7 Sliding of Debris-laden Ice
7.2.8 Sliding at Sub-Freezing Temperatures
7.2.9 Hard-bed Sliding: Summary and Outlook
7.3 Deformable Beds
7.3.1 Key Observations
7.3.2 Till Properties and Processes
7.3.3 Constitutive Behaviors
7.3.4 Slip Rate ub on a Deformable Bed
7.3.5 Large-scale Behavior of Soft Beds
7.3.6 Continuity of Till
7.3.7 Additional Geological Information
7.4 Practical Relations for Basal Slip and Drag
Further Reading
Chapter 8 The Flow of Ice Masses
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Ice Flux
8.1.2 Balance Velocities
8.1.3 Actual Velocities
8.1.4 How Surface Velocities Are Measured
8.2 Driving and Resisting Stresses
8.2.1 Driving Stress and Basal Shear Stress
8.2.2 Additional Resisting Forces and the Force Balance
8.2.3 Factors Controlling Resistance and Flow
8.2.4 Effective Driving Force of a Vertical Cliff
8.3 Vertical Profiles of Flow
8.3.1 Parallel Flow
8.3.2 Observed Complications in Shear Profiles
8.4 Fundamental Properties of Extending and Compressing Flows
8.4.1 General Concepts
8.4.2 Uniform Extension or Compression
8.5 General Governing Relations
8.5.1 Local Stress-equilibrium Relations
8.5.2 General Solutions for Stress and Velocity
8.5.3 Vertically Integrated Force Balance
8.5.4 General Mass Conservation Relation (Equation of Continuity)
8.5.5 Vertically Integrated Continuity Equations
8.6 Effects of Valley Walls and Shear Margins
8.6.1 Transverse Velocity Profile Where Basal Resistance Is Small
8.6.2 Combined Effects of Side and Basal Resistances
8.7 Variations Along a Flow Line
8.7.1 Factors Controlling Longitudinal Strain Rate
8.7.2 Local-scale Variation: Longitudinal Stress-gradient Coupling
8.7.3 Large-Scale Variation
8.8 Flow at Tidewater Margins
8.8.1 Theory
8.8.2 Observations: Columbia Glacier
8.9 Ice Sheets: Flow Components
8.9.1 Flow at a Divide
8.9.2 Ice Streams
8.9.3 Ice Shelves
8.9.4 Transition Zone Between Grounded and Floating Ice
8.9.5 Flow Over Subglacial Lakes
8.10 Surface Profiles of Ice Sheets
8.10.1 Profile Equations
8.10.2 Other Factors Influencing Profiles
8.10.3 Relation Between Ice Area and Volume
8.10.4 Travel Times
8.10.5 Local-scale Relation of Surface and Bed Topography
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Temperatures in Ice Masses
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermal Parameters of Ice and Snow
9.3 Temperature of Surface Layers
9.4 Temperate Glaciers
9.4.1 Ice Temperature
9.4.2 Origin and Effect of Water
9.4.3 Distribution of Temperate Glaciers
9.5 Steady-state Temperature Distributions
9.5.1 Steady-state Vertical Temperature Profile
9.6 Measured Temperature Profiles
9.7 General Equation of Heat Transfer
9.7.1 Derivation of Equation
9.7.2 Boundary and Basal Conditions
9.8 Temperatures Along a Flow Line
9.8.1 Observations
9.9 Time-varying Temperatures
9.10 Temperatures in Ice Shelves
Chapter 10 Large-Scale Structures
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sedimentary Layers
10.3 Foliation
10.3.1 Elongate Bubble Forms
10.3.2 Finite Strain
10.4 Folds
10.4.1 Folding in Central Regions of Ice Sheets
10.5 Boudinage
10.6 Faults
10.7 Implications for Ice Core Stratigraphy
10.8 Ogives and Longitudinal Corrugations
10.9 Crevasses
10.9.1 Patterns and Conditions for Occurrence
10.9.2 Crevasse Depth and Propagation
10.9.3 Related Tensional Features
10.10 Structural Assemblages
Further Reading
Chapter 11 Reaction of Glaciers to Environmental Changes
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Reaction to Changes of Mass Balance: Scales
11.2.1 Net Change of Glacier Length
11.2.2 Simple Models for Response
11.2.3 Simple Models for Different Zones
11.3 Reaction to Changes of Mass Balance: Dynamics
11.3.1 Theoretical Framework
11.3.2 Ice Thickness Changes
11.3.3 Relative Importance of Diffusion and Kinematic Waves
11.3.4 Numerical Models of Glacier Variation
11.4 Reactions to Additional Forcings
11.4.1 Response of Glaciers to Ice and Bed Changes
11.4.2 Factors Influencing the Reaction of an Ice Sheet to the End of an Ice Age
11.4.3 Ice Flow Increased by Water Input
11.5 Changes at a Marine Margin
11.5.1 Conceptual Framework
11.5.2 The Tidewater Glacier Cycle
11.5.3 Interactions of Ice Shelves and Inland Ice
11.5.4 Forcing by Sea-level Rise
Further Reading
Chapter 12 Glacier Surges
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Characteristics of Surging Glaciers
12.2.1 Spatial Distribution and Relation to Geological Setting
12.2.2 Distribution in Time
12.2.3 Temperature Characteristics
12.2.4 Characteristics of Form and Velocity
12.3 Detailed Observations of Surges
12.3.1 Surges of Temperate Glaciers
12.3.2 The Role of Water: Variegated Glacier
12.3.3 Surges Where the Bed Is Partly Frozen
12.3.4 Surges of Polythermal Tidewater Glaciers
12.4 Surge Mechanisms
12.4.1 General Evidence Relevant to the Mechanism
12.4.2 The Mechanism for Temperate Glaciers
12.4.3 Polythermal Glaciers
12.5 Surging of Ice Sheets?
12.6 Ice Avalanches
Chapter 13 Ice Sheets and the Earth System
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Interaction of Ice Sheets with the Earth System
13.2.1 Processes Driving Ice Sheet Change
13.2.2 Feedback Processes
13.3 Growth and Decay of Quaternary Ice Sheets
13.3.1 Relation to Milankovitch Forcings
13.3.2 Climate Forcings at the LGM
13.3.3 Onset of Quaternary Cycles
13.3.4 Heinrich Events
13.4 Ice Sheet Evolution Models
13.4.1 Model Components
13.4.2 Model Calibration
13.4.3 Simulations of Quaternary Ice Sheets
Further Reading
Chapter 14 Ice, Sea Level, and Contemporary Climate Change
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Equivalent Sea Level
14.1.2 Recent Climate and Sea-level Change
14.2 Global Warming and Mountain Glaciers
14.2.1 History of Glacier Lengths
14.2.2 Worldwide Mass Balance of Mountain Glaciers and Small Ice Caps
14.2.3 Sea-level Forecasts: Mountain Glaciers and Small Ice Caps
14.3 The Ice Sheets and Global Warming
14.3.1 Greenland
14.3.2 Antarctica
14.3.3 Model Forecasts of Ice Sheet Contributions to Sea-level Change
14.3.4 Simple Approaches to Forecasts for the Century Ahead
14.4 Summary
14.4.1 Recent Sea-level Rise
14.4.2 The Twentieth Century
14.4.3 This Century
Chapter 15 Ice Core Studies
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Some Essential Terms and Concepts
15.1.2 Delta Notation
15.2 Relation Between Depth and Age
15.2.1 Theoretical Relations
15.2.2 Determination of Ages
15.2.3 Difference of Gas and Ice Ages
15.3 Fractionation of Gases in Polar Firn
15.4 Total Air Content
15.5 Stable Isotopes of Ice
15.5.1 Conceptual Model
15.5.2 Interpretation of Records
15.6 Additional Techniques of Temperature Reconstruction
15.6.1 Borehole Temperatures
15.6.2 Melt Layers
15.6.3 Thermal and Gravitational Fractionation of Gases
15.7 Estimation of Past Accumulation Rates
15.8 Greenhouse Gas Records
15.8.1 Histories of Atmospheric Concentration
15.8.2 Isotopic Compositions of Greenhouse Gases
15.9 Gas Indicators of Global Parameters
15.9.1 Global Mean Ocean Temperature
15.9.2 Global Biological Productivity
15.10 Particulate and Soluble Impurities
15.10.1 Electrical Conductivity Measurement (ECM)
15.10.2 Primary Aerosols
15.10.3 Secondary Aerosols
15.11 Examples of Multiparameter Records from Ice Sheets
15.11.1 Deglacial Climate Change
15.11.2 A Long Record of Climate Cycling
15.12 Low-latitude Ice Cores
15.13 Surface Exposures in Ablation Zones
Further Reading
Appendix: A Primer on Stress and Strain
Index
Product details
- No. of pages: 704
- Language: English
- Copyright: © Academic Press 2010
- Published: July 7, 2006
- Imprint: Academic Press
- Hardcover ISBN: 9780123694614
- eBook ISBN: 9780080919126
About the Authors
Kurt Cuffey
Affiliations and Expertise
Dept of Earth & Planetary Science/Dept of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, USA
W. S. B. Paterson
Affiliations and Expertise
Emeritus, University of Copenhagen, Australian Antarctic Division, and Canadian Polar Continental Shelf Project