Students' Guide to Programming Languages

Preface1: Why Study Programming Languages? Why Should We Study Programming Languages? Programming Languages and the End-User Programming Languages and the Systems Analyst Programming Languages and the Programmer2: What are Programming Languages? The Development of Computers Machine Code Instruction Set Why Have Only a Small Instruction Set? Logical Operations Comparison and Branching Instruction Format Assembly Code Assembler Data Names Labels Macros Stored Programs Subroutines Subroutines in Practice Another Processor Third Generation Languages Thinking of a Solution Compiler Ease of Use Portability Fourth Generation Languages What is a Fourth Generation Language? Different Instruction Sets Other Instruction Sets Binary Operations Logical Operations Data Format Arithmetic Operations Indexing Immediate Instructions Flags and Testing Input and Output Interpreting Compiling, Linking and Loading Linking and Loading Executing What Do We Want of a Programming Language?3: Data and Data Types Types of Data Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal Converting Decimal Numbers to Binary Performing Binary Addition Representing Other Data Hexadecimal Notation Binary / Decimal / Hexadecimal Data Types Character Data Type Other Character Sets Escape Sequences Strings of Characters Strings Integer / Fixed Data Type Negative Integer Numbers Internal / External Format Fractions Very Large Numbers Real Numbers Floating Point Numbers Normalized Numbers Real Numbers in Storage Single-Precision and Double-Precision E-Notation Packed Decimal Boolean Data Type Data Types in Programming Languages Data Types in Basic Data Types in Ada Data Types in APL Data Types in Cobol Data Types in Fortran Data Types in Pascal Data Types in PL/1 Data Types in C Type Checking Arrays Subscripts Working with Arrays Homogeneous Arrays Arrays with Several Dimensions Records Enumerated Data Types Implementing Enumerated Data Types Pointers Linked Lists Set Types4: Abstract Data Types - Adts What Do We Mean By Data Type? An Abstract Data Type A Simple Abstract Data Type ADT: Queue Possible Implementations Specifying an ADT Specifying an Operation Formal Specifications The Specification of the ADT: Queue Implementing an ADT Constraints during Implementation Information Hiding5: Programming Structure and Structures Structured Programming Program Structures Sequence Assignment Statements Arithmetic Calculations Selection Logical Expressions Iteration Surface Structures Surface Structures in Structured English Surface Structures in C Surface Structures in Cobol Surface Structures in Fortran Surface Structures in Pascal Exception Conditions Handling Exception Conditions Tree Diagrams Modular Programming Functions or Subroutines? Internal Processing Modules External Processing Modules Functions Arguments Scope Calling a Module Common Data Labeled Common Using COMMON Data6: Specifying a Programming Language Specifying a Language Recursive Rules BNF: Backus-Naur Form Deriving a Sentence from a Grammar Parsing EBNF: Extended Backus-Naur Form More EBNF Symbols Syntax Diagrams Recursion in Syntax Diagrams Context-Free Grammars Semantics Specification by Narrative Description Specification by Example Specification by Substitution7: Specifying Functions Specifying Functions Sets Is a Member of Operations on Sets Union Difference Intersection Writing the Members of a Set Primitive Types in Formal Specifications The Input Set and the Domain Mapping The Output Set and the Range Describing a Function Partial Functions and Total Functions Functions with Other Types of Data More than One Input Value Other Data Types Formal Descriptions Recursion8: Compilers and Compiling A Compiler Lexical Analysis The Symbol Table Constants and Variables Arrays and the Symbol Table Syntax Analysis Syntax Checking in General Syntax Checking in Action Syntax Errors Arithmetic Expressions Reverse Polish Notation An Algorithm to Convert in-Fix Expressions to Post-Fix Evaluating a Post-Fix Expression An Algorithm to Evaluate Post-Fix Expressions Producing the Object Code Labels Scope-Checking Optimization9: Applying Languages: Commercial Procedural or Non-Procedural Languages? Even Before Software Report Program Generators Program Generators Partial Action of a Program Generator Databases Database Languages Inquiry Languages SQL Sorting Selecting Specific Items Dbase Sorting in Dbase Processing in Dbase QBE; Query by Example Processing in QBE Data Description Language Fourth Generation Languages What is a Fourth Generation Language? The Pros and Cons of Using 4gls Prototyping 4GL / Inquiry Language / Data Manipulation Language Looking At A 4GL Derived Fields Using the Data Dictionary SB + and the Users10: Applying Languages: Specialist Concurrent Processing Synchronization Condition Synchronization Mutual Exclusion Deadlock Transputers Occam An Occam Definition More Occam Facilities Priority and Selection Simulation Problems Simulation Languages What is the Problem? Queuing Diagrams A Simplified Simulation Language What Else is There? Linear Programming11: Other Language Models Functional Programming Languages Lambda Notation Orthogonality Composition of Functions LISP: List Processing Processing with LISP Arithmetic in LISP Input and Output The Quote Function The COND Function Defining Your Own LISP Functions Heads and Tails CAR and CDR Implementing LISP Cells and Binding Logic Programming Prologue: Programming in Logic and / OR Backtracking Write Predicate Prologue in Business Processing Data in Prologue Instantiation Expert Systems Object-Oriented Programming Classes Messages Methods Blocks Selection and Iteration Input / OutputIndex