Psychology

1 A Scientific Approach to the Study of Human Nature Why Men Study Human Nature Sources of Knowledge about Human Nature Proverbs, Myths, and Generalizations Literature and Other Arts Personal Experience Scientific Method Cause and Correlation The Search for Causes Sciences of Human Nature Scientific Methods in Psychology Statistical Descriptions The Normal Distribution Curve Objective Observation Objectivity and Subjectivity Hypnosis and the Unconscious Mind The Era Before Scientific Psychology Some Schools of Psychology The Structuralists The Functionalists The Psychoanalysts The Behaviorists The Gestaltists Contemporary Psychology Table I. Historically Important Schools of Psychology The Plan of This Book Suggested Further Reading 2 Sensation and Perception The Sense of Sight How We See How We See Colors Color Blindness Light and Dark Adaptations Night Vision and the Purkinje Phenomenon Night Blindness The Blind Spot After-images Eye Movements and Reading Efficiency Types of Eye Movements Eye Movements in Reading Reading Improvement The Sense of Hearing How We Hear Theories of Hearing What We Hear Our Range of Hearing Age and Hearing Loss Acuity of Hearing in infants and Children The 'Sixth Sense' or 'Facial Vision' of the Blind Our Sense of Taste and Smell Taste Receptors The Basic Taste Sensations Mingling of Sense Responses Changing Tastes Smell Classifying Smells Smell Capacities of Children Smell Adaptability The Feeling Senses Sensations of Hot and Cold The Sensitive Areas of the Skin Pain Sensation Sense of Balance Sense of Muscle Co-ordination Visceral Senses Suggested Further Reading 3 Perception Perception versus Sensation Sensation Without Perception How We Perceive The Gestalt Concept of Perception Perception and the Nature of the Stimulus Similarity Proximity Continuity Closure Perception and the Background or Setting of the Stimulus Fluctuations of Perception Perception of Relationships Perception in Terms of Previous Related Experience Reaction to Cues and Symbols Illusions Illusion of Length Illusion of Area Illusion of Distortion Illusion of Direction The Illusion in Cinema Pictures Perception and Personal Feelings, Attitudes, Drives, etc. Perception and Emotion Effects of Enthusiasm on Perception Perceptual Distortions Due to Strong Drives Perception and Suggestion Sensory Deprivation Perception and Adjustment Suggested Further Reading 4 Learning How We Respond to Stimuli The Prevalence of Learning How Animals Solve Problems Trial-and-Error Thinking How Animals Remember Solutions to Problems Reinforcing a Desired Response Conditioning Generalization and Differentiation Extinction and Reconditioning Operant Learning The Gestalt Approach to Learning Do Animals Form Concepts? Animal and Human Learning Compared Suggested Further Reading 5 Thinking Trial-and-Error Thinking Insight, the 'AHA!' Experience Trial-and-Error, insight, and Reasoning Yerhes' Multiple-Choice Experiment Table II. A Multiple-Choice Experiment How We Form Concepts John Dewey's Analysis of Reasoning Creativity, the Third Stage of Reasoning A Check-list of Questions for Problem-Solvers Logic, the Fourth Stage of Reasoning Verification Convergent and Divergent Thinking The Nature of Thinking Thinking and Language Suggested Further Reading 6 Remembering Four Kinds of Remembering Memory versus Habit The Laws of Learning Human Conditioning Ebbinghaus's Experiments on Memorizing Distributed Practice is More Effective than Massed Practice Whole Learning is Usually Better than Part Learning Search for Meaning The Value of Reciting Instruction Motives Imitation Knowledge of Results Reward and Punishment The Effect of Punishment on Learning Habit Formation and Control A Typical Learning Curve Remembering in Images Retaining What Has Been Acquired Why Do We Forget? Inhibition and Transfer of Learning Suggested Further Reading 7 intelligence and Aptitudes The Meaning of intelligence Measuring General intelligence The British Ability Scales Mental Maturity Mental Age The intelligence Quotient, or 'I.Q.' Intelligence Levels The intellectually Gifted Helping the Gifted Child Some False Beliefs about Great intellect Can I.Q. Change? Qualities of a Good Test Using intelligence Test Results Aptitude Testing Group Factor Tests Scoring Aptitude Tests Conclusion Suggested Further Reading 8 Heredity and Environment The Basis of individual Differences Limitation By Species Rearing a Boy With a Monkey Heredity What is Heredity? The Mechanics of Heredity in Reproduction The Role of the Genes How Two Sexes Produce Variation The Laws of Heredity Dominant versus Recessive Traits Dominance and Recessiveness of Human Traits inheritance of Unit Characters Blending of Traits Sex-Linked inheritance Eugenics Heredity versus Environment Can inherited Traits Be Changed? Inheritance of Physical Traits versus Environmental Influences Inherited Taste Abilities Inherited Smell Differences Stature Differences Nature and Nurture of internal Organs Is Musical Aptitude inherited? The Origin of Musical Genius Is Athletic Genius inherited? Inheritance of Great Artistic, Mathematical and Literary Talent No Greatness Without industriousness Influences on Temperament Is intelligence inherited or Developed? Summary of Views on Heredity versus Environmental influences Suggested Further Reading 9 The Psychology of infancy Prenatal Life Prenatal Learning The Birth Experience Reflex Acts Maturation Table III. Stages of Motor Development Talking Toilet Training Feeding Thumbsucking The Importance of Play Masturbation The Child's Morality The Child's Understanding The Development of the Self The Psychological Effect of a Name The Desire for Love and Esteem Freudian Theory about infant Development Questions about Life and Sex Emotional Growth Acceptance by Parents Dominance by Parents The Effects of Deprivation Frustration of the Drives for independence Suggested Further Reading 10 The Psychology of Childhood Early Social Behavior Childhood Jealousy Stuttering and Stammering The Young Child's Morality The Child's Conscience Play Real and Imaginary Companions Psychological Importance of Toys and Games Learning in School The Mental Development of the Child The Gang Age The Gang Leader Psychological Effect of the Gang Competition and Co-operation The Reason for the Gang The Older Child's Morality Suggested Further Reading11 Psychology of Adolescence How Adolescence is Studied Adolescent Phases Puberty Table IV. Ages of Sexual Maturation Sexual Maturity in Boys Table V. Percentage of Each Age Group First Experiencing Certain Sexual Characteristics Sexual Maturity in Girls Adolescent Problems Adolescent Masturbation Becoming independent of the Family Attaining Emotional Maturity Social Maturity Economic independence Table VI. Social Growth intellectual Adulthood intellectual Development A Mature Philosophy of Life Suggested Further Reading12 Motions and Personality Development Emotional Feelings Other Aspects of Emotion Theories of Emotion William James's instinct Theory of Emotion Are Emotions inborn or Learned? inborn Emotional Responses Reflex Responses The Crying Reflex The Startle Response Are Facial Expressions inborn? Facial Expression in Emotion Judging Emotion By Behavior internal Changes in Emotion The 'Lie Detector' Identity of Fear and Rage Cannon's 'Emergency' Theory The Anatomy of Emotion Antagonism of the Nerves The James-Lange Theory of Emotions Refuting the James-Lange Theory The Brain and Emotion Affectivity The Affective Tone Development of the Emotional Pattern The Role of Stimuli in Producing Emotion Emotional Habits in Everyday Life Conditioned Prejudices The Multiplication of Feelings Wundt's Three Dimensions of Feeling The Differentiation of Behavior Emotions and Disease Eliminating Emotions Controlling Emotions Some Rules for Controlling Emotion Suggested Further Reading 13 Personality Kinds of Traits The Choice of Traits to Measure The Traits of Honesty Situation Tests of Personality Projective Tests of Personality Tests of Attitudes Rating Scales Extraversion and introversion The Primary Dimensions of Personality Table VII. Twelve Primary Dimensions of Personality Classifying Personalities The Personality Profile Personality and Physique Kretschmer's Critics Sheldon's Three Extremes Other Physical Traits The Four Humors The Theory of H. J. Eysenck Endocrinology Other Endocrine Glands The Thyroid Gland The Gonads The Pituitary Gland Endocrines and Personality Typing Personality by Glandular Function Criticism of Glandular Typing Suggested Further Reading 14 Motivation and Personality Drives or Basic Needs Learning and Adjustment Other Basic Drives Positive Motives The Need for Sleep What Causes Sleep? Motives and Emotions The Social Motives Social Motives versus instinct The Development of Social Motives The Mastery Motive The Social Approval Motive Other Social Motives The Sexual Motives Habits as Motives Social Facilitation Mob Psychology Higher Motives and Conscience Choosing Between Alternative Acts Measuring Motives The Rank of Motives Other Factors in Choices Fallacies about 'Will Power' The Will and Voluntary Efforts Suggested Further Reading15 Personality Adjustment and Maladjustment Mechanisms of Adjustment Mature and Immature Adjustment Mechanisms Infantile Adjustment Mechanisms Anxiety Forms of Dependence Childish Mechanisms of Adjustment Approach Aggression Withdrawal Childish Reactions to the Fact of Failure Childish Reactions to Personal inadequacy Compensation Childish Reactions to Thwarted Motives Dreaming Some Facts about Dreams Fiction and Fantasy Inhibited Reactions to Motives The Good Adjustment The Mechanisms of Mature Adjustment Security and Confidence Improving One's Own Adjustment Suggested Further Reading 16 Neurotic Personality Anxiety The Causes of Anxiety Detecting Repressed Stimuli Typical Repressed Material The School of Freud The Failure of Repression Phobias Obsessions Compulsions The Compulsive Personality Kleptomania and Other Manias Dissociated Personalities Somnambulism, or Sleep-walking Fugue, or Flight Amnesia, or Loss of Identity Double Personality Hysteria Neurasthenia Psychosomatic Medicine The Meaning of Neurosis Traumatic Neuroses Methods of Psychotherapy Systematic Desensitization Aversion Therapy Operant Conditioning Suggested Further Reading 17 Abnormal Personality Delinquent Personalities Psychopathic Personality Psychosis and insanity Psychosis and Neurosis Hallucinations Delusions Disordered Emotions The Kinds of Psychoses The Organic Psychoses General Paresis Alcoholic Reactions The Problem Drinker The Pre-Alcoholic Stage Early-Stage Alcoholism Late-Stage Alcoholism Helping the Problem Drinker Senile Dementia Symptoms of Organic Psychoses Functional Psychoses Psychotic Depression Involutional Melancholia The Male Climacteric Manic-Depressive Psychosis Psychotic Mania Schizophrenia Simple Schizophrenia Acute Schizophrenic Panic Catatonic Schizophrenia Hebephrenic Schizophrenia Paranoid Schizophrenics Paranoid States Paranoia The Treatment of Psychotics Three Trends in Treatment The Tranquillizing Drugs Suggested Further Reading 18 Issues in Social Psychology Where do Our Attitudes Come From? What Functions do Attitudes Serve? The Adjustive Function The Ego-defensive Function The Value-expressive Function The Knowledge Function Measuring Attitudes Can Attitudes be Changed? Explanations of Attitude Change Attitudes and Behavior The Roles we Play also influence our Attitudes and Behavior Prejudice—A Particular Kind of Attitude Several Terms Relate to the Concept of Prejudice Discrimination Stereotyping Explanations of Prejudice Syndrome Theories Authoritarian Personality Explanations of Prejudice Group Level Explanations Can Prejudice be Changed? General Effects of Group Pressure—The Conformity Issue Concluding Comments Suggested Further Reading Glossary Index