Medical Microbiology and Parasitology PMFU, 4th Edition

4th Edition - June 19, 2020
Authors: B. S. Nagoba, ASHA PICHARE
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 8 1 - 3 1 2 - 6 1 1 9 - 4
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 8 1 - 3 1 2 - 6 1 2 0 - 0

The fourth edition of this book is thoroughly updated in accordance with the competency-based curriculum of Microbiology. This book highlights the important aspects of Medical Mi… Read more

Medical Microbiology and Parasitology PMFU, 4th Edition

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The fourth edition of this book is thoroughly updated in accordance with the competency-based curriculum of Microbiology. This book highlights the important aspects of Medical Microbiology and presents a concise exam-oriented text as per the revised guidelines of Medical Council of India and health universities across the country, and nearby countries.

Ideal for undergraduate students of medical, dental, physiotherapy, nursing, pharmacy and science

Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Dedication
Preface to the fourth edition
Preface to the first edition
Acknowledgements
UNIT I. GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction
1. Introduction
▪ What is the difference between microorganisms and macroorganisms?
▪ What does microbiology deal with?
▪ Group microorganisms on the basis of their morphology and functional properties.
▪ To which taxonomic kingdom do microorganisms belong? Name the subdivisions of kingdom of microorganisms on the basis of cellular organization.
▪ Enumerate the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
▪ Discuss the beneficial and harmful effects of microorganisms on human, animal and plant lives.
▪ What does medical microbiology deal with?
▪ List the various branches of medical microbiology.
2. History of microbiology
▪ Discuss the evolution of the concept of microbes and their generation.
▪ Discuss the important contributions of Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) in the field of microbiology.
▪ List the important contributions of Louis Pasteur (1822–1895).
▪ List the important contributions of Joseph Lister (1827–1912).
▪ What are the important contributions of Robert Koch (1843–1910)?
▪ Who is known as the father of chemotherapy? List his important contributions.
▪ Who discovered prontosil as an antibacterial agent?
▪ Mention the contributions of the following in the discovery of antibiotics: (a) Sir Alexander Fleming (1928), (b) Chain (1940), and (c) Waksman (1944).
▪ In a tabulated form list chronologically (from 1850–1896) names of scientists and their important discoveries.
▪ Discuss with examples, the discovery of viruses.
▪ Tabulate important discoveries in virology by Smith (1933), Hyashi (1934), Row (1953), Montagnier (1983), Robert Gallo (1984).
▪ Apart from contributions of pasteur in the development of vaccines for immunization, mention other important historical landmarks in immunology.
3. Microscopy and staining techniques
▪ What is a microscope and how is it important in the study of microbes?
▪ Give the unit(s) of measurement of microbes. Also, give the conversion table for these.
▪ Based on the principle of magnification, name two types of microscopes.
▪ State the working principle and uses of various types of light/optical microscopes and the electron microscope.
▪ Mention the importance of staining in the study of microorganisms.
▪ Name the techniques used for staining live and fixed (killed) organisms. Explain the types of staining techniques employed for killed organisms.
▪ Write an account of the microscopic methods used for unstained and stained preparations commonly used in the study of microorganisms.
4. Morphology of bacteria
▪ What are bacteria?
▪ Classify bacteria on the basis of their shape.
▪ Classify bacteria based on characteristic arrangement of their cells.
▪ With suitable illustrations describe in detail a bacterial cell.
5. Physiology of bacteria
▪ Define the term nutrition. Describe the two categories of nutrients required by bacteria for their growth and development.
▪ What are the growth requirements of medically important bacteria? What is the meaning of term fastidious bacteria?
▪ Describe in detail optimum nutritional requirements for growth of bacteria.
▪ Discuss the environmental factors that affect growth of bacteria.
▪ What is bacterial growth?
▪ Describe the modes of bacterial cell division.
▪ What is bacterial growth curve? Draw and explain its various phases?
▪ Describe the various methods adopted for measuring bacterial growth.
▪ What is continuous culture?
▪ How is in vivo growth of bacteria different from in vitro growth?
▪ What do you understand by ‘bacterial metabolism’? Describe in short (a) oxidation, (b) fermentation, and (c) redox potential in reference to bacterial metabolism.
6. Classification of bacteria
▪ Define the words taxonomy and classification with reference to bacteria.
▪ Name the three taxonomic kingdoms into which organisms are categorized. Of these, to which one do microorganisms belong.
▪ Which is the commonly used phylogenetic system of bacterial classification. Give one example.
▪ Based on Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology classify pathogenic bacteria, starting from division protophyta to the level of genus.
▪ Enumerate the factors generally considered for identification and classification of bacteria.
▪ Give nomenclature of a bacterium.
▪ Classify bacteria on the basis of morphology.
▪ Classify bacteria based on their gram staining characters.
▪ Classify bacteria based on acid-fast staining reactions.
▪ Classify bacteria on the basis of the arrangement of their cells.
▪ Very briefly describe adansonian classification, genetic classification and intraspecies classification.
7. Culture media
▪ Highlight the importance of culture technique in the study of microorganisms.
▪ What is a culture medium?
▪ What are the characteristics of an ideal culture medium?
▪ What are the basic requirements of culture media?
▪ What are the common ingredients of culture media and how are they helpful in growth of bacteria?
▪ Write short notes on various types of culture media, classified based on their physical state.
▪ Write short notes on various types of culture media based on their nutritional factors.
8. Culture methods
▪ What do you understand by ‘culture methods’?
▪ Enumerate the indications for culture of bacteria in a clinical laboratory.
▪ What do you understand by ‘inoculation’ of culture media? Describe the types of equipment used for this purpose.
▪ Describe the various methods adopted for culture of bacteria.
▪ Which temperature is best suited for incubating pathogenic bacteria?
▪ Mention the characteristic growth condition for anaerobic bacteria. Describe the various methods adopted for creating anaerobic conditions to culture anaerobic bacteria.
▪ Mention the various methods of obtaining pure cultures.
9. Identification of bacteria
▪ List the important growth characters that are helpful in identifying bacteria cultured on solid medium, liquid medium and slope.
▪ Mention the staining characters used in the identification of bacteria.
▪ Mention the metabolic activities that assist in identification of bacteria.
▪ Describe pointwise the various biochemical reactions used for identifying bacteria. (MI 18.13 and MI 18.15)
▪ Mention the specific utility of the following methods for identifying bacteria: antigenic analysis, bacteriophage and bacteriocin typing, pathogenicity tests, automated methods, molecular methods and antibiotic sensitivity testing.
10. Sterilization and disinfection
▪ What do you understand by the terms sterilization and disinfection?
▪ Define sterilization. Describe in detail the various physical agents/methods of sterilization. (MI 1.4 and 1.5)
▪ Define disinfection. List and briefly explain the mode of action of the chemical agents used for disinfection.
▪ List the characteristics of an ideal disinfectant.
▪ Describe briefly the commonly used disinfectants. (MI 1.4 and 1.5)
▪ Write short notes on the following methods of determining the quality of disinfectants: (a) Rideal–Walker test, (b) Chick–Martin test and (c) In-Use test.
▪ Write a note on Spaulding’s classification.
▪ Discuss in brief high-level, intermediate-level and low-level disinfectants.
▪ Describe in brief a newer method of sterilization of heat-sensitive articles, i.e. plasma sterilization.
11. Biomedical waste management
▪ Define biomedical waste (BMW) and biomedical waste management.
▪ How would you classify biomedical waste for management purposes?
▪ What is the chief objective of biomedical waste management? Highlight the health hazards associated with improper waste management.
▪ Name the regulatory agency for biomedical waste management.
▪ Why is it important to segregate biomedical waste before disposing it off? Highlight the benefits of good segregation practices. How is segregation of biomedical waste managed according to biomedical waste rules 2016?
▪ Describe the techniques available for treatment of infectious waste.
▪ How is liquid waste from hospitals treated?
12. Bacterial genetics
▪ Write a short note on the mode of genetic transmission of characters.
▪ Briefly describe the structure of DNA.
▪ Briefly describe the structure and functions of RNA.
▪ Define the following terms: (a) gene, (b) codon, (c) nonsense codon, (d) genotype and (e) phenotype.
▪ Elucidate the function of chromosomes in the synthesis of amino acids.
▪ Give a brief account of extrachromosomal genetic elements—plasmids and episomes.
▪ Enumerate the properties of plasmids.
▪ What is meant by phenotype? Mention the phenotypic variations generally observed in bacteria.
▪ What is meant by ‘genotype’ of an organism? What are genotypic variations and how do they occur?
▪ Define the word mutation.
▪ Write a short note on spontaneous mutations.
▪ Write a short note on induced mutations.
▪ Explain the following types of mutations: (a) nonsense mutation, (b) missense mutation and (c) suppression mutation.
▪ Write short notes on transformation and transduction.
▪ Explain lysogenic conversion.
▪ What is conjugation? Explain the mechanism and process of conjugation. Mention its significance.
▪ Explain the mechanism of F-mediated chromosome transfer in Hfr cell.
▪ How is conjugation important to medical science?
▪ Write a short note on transposable genetic material.
▪ What is genetic engineering/DNA recombinant technology? With the help of a diagram, explain the various steps involved in it.
▪ List the various applications of genetic engineering.
▪ What are DNA probes? Describe in short the procedure, advantages and applications of DNA probes. Also list the commercially available DNA probes.
▪ Write a short note on polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
▪ Discuss blotting techniques.
13. Infection
▪ What is ‘infection’ and how is it different from ’disease’? (MI 1.3)
▪ Classify microorganisms based on host-parasite relationships.
▪ Name and define various types of infections.
▪ Classify infections based on (a) clinical effects they produce and (b) source.
▪ Mention the various sources of human infections.
▪ Describe the various routes by which transmission occurs.
▪ What is microbial pathogenicity? Differentiate between pathogenicity and virulence.
▪ Describe the factors predisposing to pathogenicity (virulence factors).
▪ Broadly classify infectious diseases based on the extent of infection.
▪ Classify infectious diseases based on their spread in the community.
14. Normal microbial flora
▪ Explain briefly what is normal microbial flora.
▪ Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of normal microbial flora.
▪ Write a short note on normal flora of the skin.
▪ Write a short note on normal flora of the conjunctiva.
▪ Write a short note on normal flora of the mouth.
▪ Write a short on normal flora of the upper and lower respiratory tract.
▪ Write a short note on normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT).
▪ Write a short note on normal flora of the genitourinary tract.
▪ Which microorganisms are commonly found into the blood and tissues?
15. Antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial susceptibility testing
▪ Mention the genetic mechanism of acquiring drug resistance. Diagrammatically represent the genetic basis of drug resistance. (MI 1.6)
▪ What is mutational drug resistance? Giving an example, explain how it is important in the treatment of bacterial infections.
▪ Write a short note on transferable (infectious) drug resistance.
▪ What is the importance of antimicrobial susceptibility testing?
▪ Name the tests generally performed for assessing antimicrobial susceptibility of clinical isolates. (MI 1.6)
▪ Discuss in detail ‘diffusion tests’, methods of antimicrobial susceptibility testing.
▪ Name the automated AST systems.
▪ Write a short note on (a) broth dilution test and (b) agar dilution test.
▪ Describe in short monitoring of antimicrobial therapy. (MI 1.6)
▪ Describe methods used for monitoring.
▪ What is antimicrobial stewardship and what are its goals?
▪ Who are the members of AMS team?
▪ What is antibiotic policy?
▪ What are two AMS approaches or strategies?
UNIT II. IMMUNOLOGY
Introduction
16. Immunity
▪ Define immunity.
▪ Draw a flowchart to represent the different types of immunity.
▪ What is natural or innate immunity? Describe different types of natural immunity (MI 1.7 and 1.8).
▪ How does nonspecific innate immunity operate?
▪ Describe the external defence system of the body.
▪ Describe in detail the internal defence system of the body.
▪ What is acquired immunity? Give the name of two types of acquired immunity (MI 1.7 and 1.8).
▪ What is active immunity? Briefly describe naturally acquired and artificially acquired active immunity.
▪ Write a short note on passive immunity.
▪ Differentiate between active and passive immunity.
▪ Briefly describe the types of immunity other than active and passive immunity (MI 1.7 and 1.8).
17. Antigen (Ag)
▪ Explain what an antigen is?
▪ Mention two attributes of antigenicity.
▪ Classify antigens on the basis of the response they are able to induce in the host.
▪ What is an antigenic determinant? List its properties.
▪ Describe the properties of antigens (requirements of immunogenicity/factors affecting immunogenicity).
▪ Explain antigenic specificity. Also categorize specificity of natural tissue antigens of animals.
18. Immunoglobulins (Igs)—antibodies (Abs)
▪ Define antibodies.
▪ Describe the characteristics of antibodies.
▪ With the help of suitable illustrations describe the structure of antibodies.
▪ Mention the name of five classes of immunoglobulins. Describe the features and biological activities of each of them.
▪ What are abnormal immunoglobulins? Give three examples of diseases associated with production of abnormal immunoglobulins.
19. Antigen–antibody reactions
▪ Explain antigen–antibody (Ag–Ab) reaction. Mention the importance of these reactions.
▪ Mention the characteristics of Ag–Ab reactions.
▪ Mention the ways in which the presence of antigen/antibody in any system is measured.
▪ Mention the important parameters of serological tests.
▪ Describe in detail the precipitation and flocculation reactions.
▪ Describe the techniques of precipitation and flocculation reaction.
▪ What is an agglutination reaction? Briefly describe the procedures and uses of the various types of agglutination tests.
▪ Describe in detail the complement fixation test (CFT).
▪ Write an account on the other complement-dependent serological tests.
▪ Enumerate the applications of CFT.
▪ Describe neutralization test.
▪ Describe immunofluorescence. Highlight the features of immunofluorescence tests and mention two uses of each test.
▪ Explain the technique of radioimmunoassay (RIA). Briefly mention its procedure and uses.
▪ Write a note on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
▪ Describe in brief chemiluminescence-linked immunoassay (CLIA).
▪ Explain the technique of immunoblotting.
▪ Explain in brief the immunochromatographic test.
▪ Explain the various immunoelectron microscopic tests.
20. The complement system
▪ Describe the complement system.
▪ Describe the nature of complement.
▪ Mention the properties of complement.
▪ Mention the nomenclature of complement components.
▪ Enumerate the components of complement.
▪ How is a complement activated?
▪ Discuss the pathways by which a complement is activated.
▪ Discuss regulation of C activation.
▪ Mention the ways in which the complement system participates in immunological and biological activities.
▪ Name the sites in the human body where components of C are synthesized.
21. Structure and functions of immune system
▪ Name the important organs of immune system and describe in short their role in the development of immunocompetent cells. (MI 1.7 and 1.8)
▪ Describe the organs of the central (primary) lymphoid organs. Also enumerate their functions. (MI 1.7 and 1.8)
▪ Describe peripheral lymphoid organs and also give their functions.
▪ Name the important cells of the lymphoreticular system. (MI 1.7 and 1.8)
▪ What are lymphocytes? Describe their structure.
▪ Classify lymphocytes based on (a) morphology, (b) lifespan and (c) functions.
▪ Differentiate between T and B lymphocytes.
▪ List the general functions of lymphocytes.
▪ Describe the various types of T lymphocytes.
▪ Describe B lymphocytes.
▪ Enumerate the properties and functions of plasma cells.
▪ What are null cells? Describe the various types of null cells.
▪ What are phagocytic cells?
▪ Write a short note on each of the following types of phagocytic cells: macrophages and microphages.
▪ Enumerate the functions of phagocytic cells.
▪ Define phagocytosis.
▪ Describe the process of phagocytosis.
▪ Describe dendritic cells.
▪ What is major histocompatibility complex (MHC)?
▪ Describe HLA complex.
▪ State important features and functions of histocompatibility antigens.
▪ Explain HLA typing.
▪ Write a short note on MHC restriction.
22. The immune response
▪ Explain the immune response.
▪ Comment on the fate of immunogens in human body.
▪ Discuss the Ab-mediated (humoral) immune response to (a) T-dependent Ags and (b) T-independent Ags.
▪ Mention the scope of humoral immunity (HI).
▪ What are monoclonal antibodies?
▪ With the help of suitable illustrations, describe the technique of hybridoma production.
▪ Write down the applications of monoclonal Abs.
▪ List the factors affecting Ab production and highlight their important features.
▪ Discuss the theories of Ab production.
▪ Explain the cell-mediated immune response (cell-mediated immunity).
▪ How is induction of CMI brought about?
▪ Name two major effector mechanisms of CMI responses.
▪ What are cytokines?
▪ Describe the biological activities of cytokines.
▪ What are cytotoxic T cells?
▪ Mention the tests used for detection of CMI.
▪ Mention the role of CMI.
▪ What is immunological tolerance?
▪ Mention different types of immunological tolerance and factors responsible for it.
▪ Discuss the mechanism of immunological tolerance.
23. Immunodeficiency diseases
▪ Define and classify immunodeficiency diseases. (MI 1.10)
▪ Give a detailed description of primary immunodeficiencies.
▪ List the diagnostic tests employed for determining (a) disorders of phagocytosis, (b) B-cell deficiency, (c) T-cell deficiency and (d) combined immunodeficiency. Also give the line of treatment followed for the aforementioned diseases. (MI 1.10)
▪ Write a short note on secondary immunodeficiencies.
▪ Write a short note on acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
24. Hypersensitivity (allergy)
▪ Explain hypersensitivity.
▪ Classify the hypersensitivity reactions based on the time taken by them to develop.
▪ Differentiate between immediate type and delayed type of hypersensitivity reactions.
▪ What is the basis of coombs and gell classification of hypersensitivity reactions?
▪ Discuss in detail type I hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis). (MI 1.10)
▪ Which are the two types of pharmacological mediators of anaphylaxis?
▪ Write short notes on the following mediators of anaphylaxis: (a) primary mediators, (b) secondary mediators and (c) mediators other than these, if any.
▪ What is systemic anaphylaxis?
▪ Discuss cutaneous anaphylaxis (local anaphylaxis). Briefly discuss the mechanism of development and desensitization process of this reaction.
▪ Write a short note on anaphylaxis in vitro.
▪ Write a short note on laboratory methods for diagnosis of type I hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ What is anaphylactoid reaction?
▪ Write a short note on type II hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ Write a short note on laboratory methods for diagnosis of type II hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ Describe type III hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ Write a short note on laboratory methods for diagnosis of type III hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ Describe type IV hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ Write a short note on laboratory methods for diagnosis of type IV hypersensitivity reaction. (MI 1.10)
▪ What is type V hypersensitivity reaction? (MI 1.10)
▪ Briefly describe shwartzman reaction.
25. Autoimmunity
▪ Write an explanatory note on autoimmunity.
▪ Discuss various mechanisms involved in the development of autoimmune diseases. (MI 1.10)
▪ Classify autoimmune diseases.
▪ Describe haemocytolytic autoimmune diseases and their diagnosis. (MI 1.10)
▪ What are organ-specific or localized autoimmune diseases? Describe some organ-specific autoimmune diseases and their laboratory diagnosis. (MI 1.10)
▪ What are non-organ-specific (systemic) autoimmune diseases? Describe some non-organ-specific autoimmune diseases and their laboratory diagnosis. (MI 1.10)
▪ What are transitory diseases?
26. Transplantation and tumour immunity
▪ Why is transplantation performed? How successful is this procedure?
▪ Define the following terms: Graft/transplant, donor, recipient, living donor graft and cadaveric donor graft.
▪ Mention the different types of transplants.
▪ What is rejection? How can it be confirmed that rejection of a transplant is an immunological event?
▪ Explain the mechanisms of graft rejection/transplantation. (MI 1.11)
▪ What measures should be taken to prevent graft rejection?
▪ Describe graft versus host (GVH) reaction.
▪ How does a tumour induce an immune response? Describe the different types of tumour antigens.
▪ Write a short note on immune response in malignancy. (MI 1.11)
▪ How is immunological surveillance built and maintained? Also give reasons for its lapse.
▪ Write a short note on immunotherapy of cancer.
27. Immunization, immunizing agents, immunoprophylaxis and immunotherapy
▪ What is immunization?
▪ Why is immunization necessary?
▪ Name the immunizing agents used for immunization.
▪ Define vaccine.
▪ Describe the types of vaccines on the basis of their mode of preparation and their role in development in immunity. (MI 1.9)
▪ Discuss in brief universal immunization programme. (MI 1.9)
▪ Describe in short the agents used for immunotherapy (passive immunization).
UNIT III. SYSTEMIC BACTERIOLOGY
Introduction
28. Laboratory diagnosis of bacterial diseases
▪ What precautions should be taken while collecting specimen for laboratory diagnosis?
▪ Give the collection procedure for the following specimens: Urine, genital tract, cerebrospinal fluid, stool, sputum, throat swab, serous fluid, pus and blood.
▪ What negative effects would delay in transport have on specimens collected for laboratory diagnosis? How can this be avoided? Cite examples.
▪ By which methods of direct microscopy can microorganisms be identified/detected?
▪ Mention the cultural conditions suitable for growth of medically important bacteria.
▪ Enumerate the methods by which microorganisms grown in a culture medium can be identified.
▪ Why is antimicrobial susceptibility testing important?
▪ List the automated systems used for culture and identification.
▪ Why and on what basis are serological tests performed? Name the commonly used serological tests.
▪ How are bacterial antigens detected?
▪ List the molecular methods for detection of microorganisms. In two to five sentences, explain any two methods.
▪ Besides culture, bacterial antigens and molecular detection, which other methods are used for identification of microorganisms?
▪ Under which circumstances does typing of a strain become necessary? List the methods by which it can be performed.
29. Staphylococcus
▪ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of Staphylococcus.
▪ Which species of Staphylococcus are important to human beings?
▪ Classify staphylococci on the basis of coagulase production.
▪ Enumerate the important morphological features of Staph. aureus.
▪ Give the cultural characteristics of Staph. aureus.
▪ List the biochemical reactions characteristic to Staph. aureus.
▪ What are the characteristic features of Staph. aureus?
▪ To which factors is Staph. aureus resistant/sensitive?
▪ Write a short note on each of the following virulence factors produced by Staph. aureus: (a) antigens, (b) toxins and (c) enzymes.
▪ Describe the methods of typing Staphylococcus.
▪ Describe the pathogenicity of Staph. aureus.
▪ Write a short note on toxin-mediated diseases caused by Staph. aureus.
▪ Describe in brief the diagnosis of Staph. aureus infection.
▪ How are Staph. aureus infections treated?
▪ Write a note on methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus (MRSA).
▪ Mention the characteristic features of Staph. epidermidis and Staph. saprophyticus.
30. Streptococcus
▪ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of streptococci.
▪ Classify streptococci.
▪ Differentiate between alpha-, beta- and gamma-haemolysis.
▪ Enumerate the important morphological features of Str. pyogenes. (MI 2.3)
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Str. pyogenes and include media and colony characters. (MI 2.3)
▪ List the biochemical reactions, which are specific to Str. pyogenes. (MI 2.3)
▪ To which factors is Str. pyogenes resistant or sensitive?
▪ Mention the type of antigens present in Str. pyogenes.
▪ Write short notes on the virulence factors produced by Str. pyogenes.
▪ Mention the types of infections caused by streptococci.
▪ Write a note on suppurative infections.
▪ State the procedure followed and examinations performed in the laboratory diagnosis of Str. pyogenes infection
▪ Write in short about treatment of streptococcal infections.
▪ Name the nonsuppurative complications produced by Str. pyogenes. Write a note on each of them.
▪ Describe in brief group B streptococci and group D streptococci.
▪ Write a note on alpha-haemolytic streptococci (Str. viridans). (MI 2.3)
31. Pneumococcus
▪ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of pneumococci.
▪ State the morphological features of pneumococci.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of pneumococci, including media and colony characters.
▪ List the biochemical reactions of pneumococci, along with their results.
▪ To which factors are pneumococci resistant or sensitive?
▪ Describe the antigens present in pneumococci.
▪ Describe in brief virulence factors of pneumococci.
▪ Describe in brief the genetic variation in pneumococci.
▪ What diseases are caused by pneumococci? Discuss them briefly.
▪ Describe in brief laboratory diagnosis of pneumococcal infections.
▪ Describe in brief prophylactic measures adopted.
▪ Which antibiotics are used in the treatment of pneumococcal infections?
32. Neisseria
▪ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of Neisseria spp.
▪ Enumerate the distinguishing morphological features of N. meningitidis.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of N. meningitidis; include media and colony characters as well.
▪ Name the biochemical reactions considered for detecting N. meningitidis.
▪ Name the antigen present in N. meningitidis. Classify meningococci on this basis.
▪ To which external factors is N. meningitidis susceptible?
▪ Describe in brief the virulence factors of N. meningitidis.
▪ Give an outline of the path of disease development in N. meningitidis infections.
▪ Name the diseases caused by N. meningitidis. Give their clinical features.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of N. meningitidis infection?
▪ Which antibiotics are administered in the treatment of N. meningitidis infections? Suggest prophylaxis for such infections.
▪ State morphological features of N. gonorrhoeae.
▪ State the cultural characteristics of N. gonorrhoeae; include media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions are specific for N. gonorrhoeae?
▪ Mention the antigens present in N. gonorrhoeae.
▪ Mention ‘resistance’ in N. gonorrhoeae.
▪ Describe in brief the virulence factors in N. gonorrhoeae.
▪ Outline a sketch of the path of disease development in N. gonorrhoeae infection. State the clinical features.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of N. gonorrhoeae infection.
▪ Which antibiotics are used in the treatment of N. gonorrhoeae infections?
33. Corynebacterium
▪ Name the scientists associated with the discovery of Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
▪ Mention the species of Corynebacterium.
▪ Enumerate the characteristic morphological features of C. diphtheriae.
▪ State the cultural characteristics of C. diphtheriae; include media and colony characters.
▪ Name the three biotypes of C. diphtheriae distinguished by McLeod.
▪ Mention the distinctive biochemical reactions of C. diphtheriae.
▪ Mention the resistance of C. diphtheriae.
▪ Which antigens are produced by C. diphtheriae?
▪ Which factor in C. diphtheriae is responsible for virulence? Give its mechanism of action and mode of synthesis.
▪ Diagrammatically represent the path of disease development in C. diphtheriae infection. Mention its clinical features.
▪ Discuss in brief the laboratory diagnosis of C. diphtheriae infection.
▪ Describe the virulence tests performed to determine the pathogenicity and host tissue invasion by C. diphtheriae.
▪ What treatment and prophylactic measures are adopted for combating C. diphtheriae infections?
▪ Write in short about diphtheroids.
34. Bacillus
▪ Narrate the historical importance of Bacillus.
▪ Mention the practical importance of Bacillus spp.
▪ State the characteristic morphological features of B. anthracis.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of B. anthracis and include media and colony characters.
▪ Mention biochemical reactions of B. anthracis.
▪ In what ways can B. anthracis be destroyed?
▪ What marks the virulence in B. anthracis?
▪ Which disease is caused by B. anthracis? Give the clinical features of the disease.
▪ Mention the laboratory diagnosis of B. anthracis infection.
▪ Give the treatment and prophylactic measures adopted for combating B. anthracis infection.
▪ Differentiate between anthrax and anthracoid bacilli.
▪ How does B. cereus cause infection?
▪ Name the clinical types of B. cereus infection.
▪ Write differentiating features between emetic and diarrhoeal types of food poisoning.
▪ Which laboratory diagnostic tests are recommended for detection of B. cereus food poisoning?
▪ Which antibiotics are used in the treatment of B. cereus food poisoning?
35. Anaerobic infections—clostridia
▪ Explain briefly the general features of clostridia.
▪ Classify clostridia on the basis of the diseases produced by them. (MI 4.1)
▪ Name the scientist after whom Cl. welchii is called so.
▪ State the salient morphological features of Cl. welchii. (MI 4.1)
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Cl. welchii and include media and colony characters.
▪ State the biochemical reactions that help in detection of Cl. welchii.
▪ Mention the agents to which Cl. welchii is sensitive or resistant?
▪ Mention the types identified in Cl. welchii.
▪ Describe the toxins produced by Cl. welchii.
▪ Enumerate the diseases caused by Cl. welchii.
▪ Discuss the pathogenesis of gas gangrene and food poisoning.
▪ Write the clinical features of gas gangrene and food poisoning by Cl. welchii.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of (a) gas gangrene and (b) food poisoning.
▪ Mention the treatment strategy for gas gangrene and food poisoning.
▪ Who discovered Cl. tetani and who isolated it first?
▪ Mention the distinguishing morphological features of Cl. tetani. (MI 4.1)
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Cl. tetani and include media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions indicate the presence of Cl. tetani?
▪ In what ways can Cl. tetani be killed?
▪ On what basis Cl. tetani is classified?
▪ Mention the toxins produced by Cl. tetani. give prominent features of each.
▪ Under which conditions Cl. tetani develops infection? Mention the predisposing factors.
▪ In the form of a flowchart, represent the mechanism of disease development in Cl. tetani infections.
▪ Describe the clinical features.
▪ What laboratory diagnostic methods should be adopted for identifying Cl. tetani?
▪ Describe the procedure(s) for toxigenicity testing of Cl. tetani.
▪ Mention the treatment strategy for tetanus.
▪ What prophylactic measures should be adopted for prevention of Cl. tetani infection?
▪ How did Cl. botulinum acquire its name?
▪ State the characteristic morphological features of Cl. botulinum. (MI 4.1)
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Cl. botulinum. also, mention the media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions are specific to Cl. botulinum?
▪ To which factors Cl. botulinum is resistant?
▪ Name the antigenic component of Cl. botulinum. How is it classified?
▪ Describe the nature of the toxin produced by Cl. botulinum and mention its mode of action.
▪ Describe the pathogenicity of Cl. botulinum.
▪ How is laboratory diagnosis of Cl. botulinum infection performed?
▪ Mention the treatment measures adopted for Cl. botulinum infections.
▪ In which year and from where was Cl. difficile isolated? Why is the species named as ‘difficile’?
▪ Give the characteristic morphological and cultural features of Cl. difficile. (MI 4.1)
▪ Write a short note on pathogenicity of Cl. difficile.
▪ What laboratory diagnostic methods should be adopted for demonstrating Cl. difficile infection?
▪ Which drugs are employed in the treatment of Cl. difficile infections?
36. Nonsporing anaerobes
▪ What are anaerobes?
▪ How do nonsporing anaerobes cause infection?
▪ Name the medically important nonsporing anaerobes. Group them into cocci and bacilli. (MI 4.1)
▪ Give the cultural characteristics of nonsporing anaerobes.
▪ Which conditions trigger development of infections by anaerobes?
▪ Name the diseases caused by nonsporing anaerobes
▪ Describe in brief the laboratory diagnosis of anaerobic infections.
▪ Describe the rapid identification methods for detection of nonsporing anaerobes.
▪ Describe the immunological methods which aid in the diagnosis of nonsporing anaerobic infections.
▪ Describe the different tests used for detection of antigens.
▪ Comment on the antibiotic susceptibility testing of nonsporing anaerobes.
▪ Name the antibiotics commonly prescribed for treating infections caused by nonsporing anaerobes.
37. Enterobacteriaceae I: Escherichia coli, Klebsiella and Proteus
▪ Describe briefly the general features of Enterobacteriaceae.
▪ Name the scientist who first described Escherichia.
▪ State the characteristic morphological features of Escherichia coli.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of E. coli; include media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions help in the identification of E. coli?
▪ Mention the resistance of E. coli.
▪ Name the antigens that are present in E. coli.
▪ How is antigenic typing done in E. coli?
▪ Describe the different types of toxins produced by E. coli.
▪ Describe in detail the pathogenicity of E. coli infection.
▪ Describe the procedures adopted and examinations conducted in laboratory diagnosis of (a) urinary tract infections, (b) diarrhoea, and (c) pyogenic infections and septicaemia.
▪ Comment in short on treatment of E. coli infections.
▪ Write the important features of (a) enterobacter, (b) serratia, (c) citrobacter.
▪ Name some medically important species of Klebsiella.
▪ Write the names of subspecies of Klebsiella pneumoniae.
▪ State the characteristic morphological features of Klebsiella.
▪ Give the cultural characteristics of Klebsiella; include media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions are characteristic of Klebsiella?
▪ Comment on antigens present in Klebsiella.
▪ Which two important species of Klebsiella are pathogenic to human beings?
▪ Name the infections caused by Klebsiella.
▪ Discuss in brief the laboratory diagnosis of Klebsiella infection.
▪ Mention the three genera belonging to the tribe proteeae.
▪ Name some important species of Proteus.
▪ State the salient morphological features of Proteus.
▪ Give the cultural characteristics of Proteus; include media and colony characters.
▪ Name and define different types of swarming.
▪ What are the possible causes of swarming? How can it be inhibited?
▪ Mention the biochemical reactions characteristic of Proteus.
▪ Explain diene’s phenomenon.
▪ Mention the antigens possessed by motile and nonmotile strains of Proteus.
▪ Describe the diseases caused by Proteus spp.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of Proteus infections.
▪ Write a short note on Providencia.
38. Enterobacteriaceae II: Salmonella
▪ How is the genus Salmonella medically significant? Mention the names of scientists who have contributed in this? (MI 3.3)
▪ State the distinguishing morphological features of Salmonella.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Salmonella, including media and colony characters.
▪ Mention the biochemical reactions that are characteristic of Salmonella spp.
▪ In what ways can Salmonella be inactivated and killed?
▪ Name the antigens present in Salmonella.
▪ Write a short note on each of the following antigens of Salmonella: H antigen, O antigen and Vi antigen.
▪ Describe the different types of antigenic variations occurring in Salmonella.
▪ On what basis are salmonellae classified. Cite examples of some strains classified according to kauffmann–white scheme.
▪ Mention the diseases caused by salmonellae.
▪ Which microorganisms are responsible for enteric fever? Diagrammatically represent the course of disease development. Mention its clinical features and complications.
▪ Give the important features of septicaemia and gastroenteritis caused by salmonellae.
▪ Discuss the epidemiology of enteric fever.
▪ Describe the steps involved in laboratory diagnosis of enteric fever. (MI 3.3 and MI 3.4)
▪ Enumerate the ways in which carriers of Salmonella are detected.
▪ Comment on the bacteriophage typing.
▪ Describe the prophylactic measures that should be taken to check Salmonella infection.
▪ How should Salmonella infections be treated?
39. Enterobacteriaceae III: Shigella
▪ Mention the disease caused by Shigella. How did it get its present name? Similarly mention other species of this genus.
▪ State the characteristic morphological features of Shigella.
▪ Mention the distinguishing cultural characteristics of Shigella; include media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions characterize Shigella spp.?
▪ Mention the ways in which Shigella spp. Can be killed?
▪ Classify shigellae.
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of shigellae.
▪ Describe the toxins produced by shigellae.
▪ Write the path of disease development triggered by ingestion of Shigella spp.
▪ Describe in brief the disease caused by Shigella.
▪ Give the clinical features and complications of Shigella infection.
▪ Write in brief the laboratory diagnosis of Shigella infection.
▪ What treatment measures are recommended for Shigella infection?
▪ Mention three most important ways of preventing and controlling Shigella infection.
40. Pseudomonas and Burkholderia
▪ Mention the species of Pseudomonas.
▪ State the salient morphological features of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of P. aeruginosa; include media and colony characters.
▪ Highlight the features of pigments produced by P. aeruginosa.
▪ Mention the biochemical reactions of P. aeruginosa.
▪ Write a note on ‘resistance’ of P. aeruginosa.
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of P. aeruginosa.
▪ Mention the virulence factors of P. aeruginosa.
▪ Write a short note on bacteriocin produced by P. aeruginosa and method of bacteriocin typing.
▪ Describe the pathogenicity of P. aeruginosa.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnostic procedures and tests for determining infections by P. aeruginosa.
▪ Mention the distinctive features of Stenotrophomonas maltophila (syn. Pseudomonas maltophila).
▪ Name the species of Burkholderia.
▪ Write the salient features of B. pseudomallei, B. mallei and B. cepacia.
41. Vibrio
▪ Name the important species of Vibrio.
▪ Mention the morphological characteristics of Vibrio cholerae.
▪ Write the types of media used and colony characteristics of V. cholerae?
▪ Describe the reactions that are used for identifying V. cholerae.
▪ Mention the factors governing survival of V. cholerae.
▪ Which antigens are present in V. cholerae?
▪ Comment on bacteriophage typing of V. cholerae.
▪ Classify Vibrio according to gardner and venkataraman’s system of classification.
▪ Diagrammatically depict the course of disease development in V. cholerae infection. Also write the clinical features of the disease.
▪ Describe the laboratory procedures and examinations employed in diagnosing V. cholerae infection.
▪ How are carriers of Vibrio detected?
▪ What treatment measures are recommended in case of V. cholerae infection?
▪ What are halophilic vibrios?
▪ Mention the salient features of V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus and V. vulnificus.
42. Yersinia, Pasteurella and Francisella
▪ How did Yersinia acquire its name? Mention its important species.
▪ Which species of Yersinia causes plague?
▪ Mention the identifying morphological characteristics of Y. pestis.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Y. pestis, including media and colony characters.
▪ Which biochemical reactions are characteristic of Y. pestis?
▪ Mention the effects of temperature, disinfectants and bacteriophage on survival of Y. pestis.
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of Y. pestis.
▪ Mention the determinants of pathogenicity in Y. pestis.
▪ Describe the pathogenesis of Y. pestis. Draw an outline sketch showing how infection is transmitted from rodents to human beings.
▪ Describe the clinical features of plague.
▪ Discuss the epidemiology of plague.
▪ How is Y. pestis infection determined through laboratory diagnosis?
▪ What can be done to prevent Y. pestis infection?
▪ Mention the characteristic features and pathogenicity of Yersinia-pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia enterocolitica.
▪ Enumerate the distinguishing features of Pasteurella.
▪ Enumerate the distinguishing features of Francisella tularensis.
43. Bordetella
▪ Who discovered Bordetella?
▪ Name the pertussis-causing species of Bordetella.
▪ Mention the characteristic morphological features of B. pertussis.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of B. pertussis?
▪ Mention the biochemical features of B. pertussis.
▪ Comment on resistance/sensitivity of B. pertussis.
▪ Enumerate the determinants of virulence in B. pertussis.
▪ Discuss pathogenicity of Bordetella spp. mention the clinical features of infections caused by them.
▪ Write in short the laboratory diagnosis of pertussis.
▪ Which antibiotics are suggested for treating pertussis?
▪ Enumerate the details of a vaccine that is administered for preventing pertussis.
44. Brucella
▪ Describe the causal agent of brucellosis. Who isolated the genus first?
▪ Name the medically important species of Brucella.
▪ Enumerate the characteristic morphological features of Brucella.
▪ Describe cultural characteristics of Brucella; include media and colony characters.
▪ Mention the conditions that are adverse to survival of Brucella.
▪ Mention the biochemical reactions of Brucella.
▪ On what basis is Brucella differentiated into species? Name the species.
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of Brucella.
▪ Which disease is caused by Brucella? Name the pathogenic species.
▪ How is brucellosis transmitted to human beings?
▪ Describe the pathogenesis of brucellosis.
▪ Mention the clinical features of brucellosis.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of Brucella infections.
▪ How is brucellosis diagnosed in animals?
▪ How can brucellosis infection be prevented?
▪ How can brucellosis be treated?
45. Haemophilus
▪ Write down the general concepts related with Haemophilus.
▪ What are the morphological characteristics of H. influenzae?
▪ Describe the cultural features of H. influenzae, including media and colony characters.
▪ What is satellitism? Discuss how this phenomenon is used in the identification of H. influenzae.
▪ Mention the biochemical reactions of H. influenzae.
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of H. influenzae.
▪ In what ways can H. influenzae be destroyed?
▪ Which factors contribute to virulence of H. influenzae and how?
▪ Discuss the pathogenicity of H. influenzae.
▪ Differentiate between invasive and noninvasive infections of H. influenzae.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of H. influenzae infections.
▪ By which methods can type ‘b’ antigens be detected?
▪ Name the antibiotics of choice used in the treatment of H. influenzae infections.
▪ How can spread of H. influenzae infections be prevented?
▪ Mention the characteristic features of H. ducreyi.
▪ Which disease is caused by H. ducreyi?
▪ What laboratory diagnostic methods are used for identifying H. ducreyi?
▪ Which antibiotics are advisable for treating H. ducreyi infections?
▪ Write in short about H. aegyptius.
46. Mycobacteria I: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
▪ What are mycobacteria? Who isolated Mycobacterium tuberculosis and when?
▪ Give the name of the three groups in which mycobacteria are classified. Cite examples.
▪ Mention the distinguishing morphological features of M. tuberculosis.
▪ Which stains are useful in identifying M. tuberculosis?
▪ Enumerate the cultural characteristics of mycobacteria. Which culture media are suitable for their growth and how do colonies appear on being cultured?
▪ Which new technique is employed for culturing mycobacteria and why?
▪ List the biochemical tests that are used for detecting mycobacteria. Explain each reaction.
▪ How long can mycobacteria remain viable? How can they be destroyed?
▪ Mention the types of antigens present in Mycobacterium spp.
▪ Trace the route of disease development in cases of infections by M. tuberculosis and M. bovis.
▪ Mention the types of tuberculosis based on the organ-system affected.
▪ List the clinical features of M. tuberculosis infection.
▪ Discuss in detail the laboratory diagnosis of Mycobacterium infections.
▪ Mention the microscopic methods used for detecting mycobacteria.
▪ How is culture technique used for identifying Mycobacterium spp.?
▪ Describe the sensitivity testing methods.
▪ Write a note on molecular diagnosis of tuberculosis.
▪ Discuss animal inoculation method for identifying Mycobacterium spp.
▪ How is tuberculin test useful for detecting M. tuberculosis? Mention the uses of tuberculin test.
▪ Differentiate between M. tuberculosis and M. bovis.
▪ Summarize the laboratory diagnostic methods used for detecting tuberculosis.
▪ Write in brief about treatment of tuberculosis?
▪ Write a note on resistance in mycobacteria.
▪ What prophylactic measure can be adopted to prevent tuberculosis?
▪ Write in short about RNTCP.
47. Mycobacteria II: Atypical mycobacteria
▪ What are atypical mycobacteria?
▪ Classify atypical mycobacteria.
▪ What are the differences between atypical and typical mycobacteria?
▪ Name the diseases caused by atypical mycobacteria.
▪ Describe the tests used for identifying atypical mycobacteria.
▪ Mention the identifying biochemical features of atypical mycobacteria.
▪ How can atypical mycobacterial infections be diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ What treatment is recommended for diseases caused by atypical mycobacteria?
48. Mycobacteria III: Mycobacterium leprae
▪ Name the causal agent of leprosy. Who described the disease first?
▪ Mention the characteristic morphological features of Mycobacterium leprae.
▪ What is morphological index? How is it useful in determining a patient’s response to treatment?
▪ What is bacteriological index? How is it calculated?
▪ How is M. leprae cultivated?
▪ State the advantages and disadvantages on the use of mice and nine-banded armadillo as systems for cultivation of M. leprae.
▪ Under which conditions M. leprae can survive and for how long?
▪ How many wall layers are present in M. leprae? State their composition.
▪ Name the different types of antigens present on M. leprae. Mention the uses of antigens—LAM-B and PGL-1.
▪ Which disease is caused by M. leprae and how is the infection transmitted?
▪ Describe clinical types of leprosy.
▪ Explain lepra reaction.
▪ What is lepromin test? Explain the reaction and mention the uses of the test.
▪ Discuss in brief laboratory diagnosis of leprosy.
▪ What treatment measures can be adopted for curing leprosy?
49. Spirochaetes
▪ What are spirochaetes?
▪ Present taxonomic classification of spirochaetes.
▪ Give the name of medically important spirochaetes.
▪ Mention the morphological features and name the species belonging to the genus Treponema along with the diseases they cause.
▪ Describe the morphological characteristics of Treponema pallidum.
▪ Enumerate the methods that can be used for demonstration of T. pallidum.
▪ How can treponemes be grown artificially?
▪ Which factors destroy T. pallidum?
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of T. pallidum.
▪ Which disease is caused by T. pallidum? How is the infection acquired?
▪ Describe the clinical features of syphilis.
▪ Describe the procedures followed and examinations conducted in the laboratory diagnosis of syphilis.
▪ Which antibiotics are used in the treatment of syphilis?
▪ Mention nonvenereal treponematoses.
▪ What is endemic syphilis?
▪ Describe treponemal infections—Yaws and Pinta.
▪ Mention the general features of the genus Borrelia? Name its species.
▪ Enumerate the morphological features of Borrelia.
▪ Discuss pathogenicity of Borrelia. Also write the associated clinical infections.
▪ How is Borrelia infection diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ Which antibiotics are suitable for treating Borrelia infection?
▪ Describe Lyme’s disease.
▪ How can Lyme’s disease be detected in a laboratory?
▪ Which antibiotics can be used to treat Lyme’s disease?
▪ What is vincent’s angina? How is it diagnosed and what treatment is offered?
▪ Mention the morphological characteristics of Leptospira.
▪ List the species of Leptospira.
▪ Name the serogroups of L. interrogans.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Leptospira.
▪ Describe pathogenicity of Leptospira, including the clinical features of the disease.
▪ How is Leptospira detected in a laboratory?
▪ Which antibiotics can be used in the treatment of Leptospira infections?
50. Actinomyces and Nocardia
▪ What are the common features of Actinomyces and Nocardia?
▪ Name the species belonging to the genus Actinomyces.
▪ Mention the characteristic morphological features of Actinomyces.
▪ Mention the cultural characteristics of Actinomyces.
▪ Which diseases are caused by Actinomyces?
▪ Describe the clinical features of actinomycosis.
▪ What laboratory diagnostic procedures and screening methods should be adopted to identify Actinomyces?
▪ How can Actinomyces infection be treated?
▪ Mention the names of species of the genus Nocardia.
▪ Mention the morphological features that characterize Nocardia.
▪ Which cultural characteristics are typical of Nocardia?
▪ Describe pathogenicity of Nocardia infection.
▪ How is laboratory diagnosis of Nocardia infection performed?
▪ What treatment is suggested for checking Nocardia infections?
▪ Mention the distinguishing features of Actinomadura and streptomyces.
51. Rickettsiaceae and bartonellaceae
▪ Mention the general features of the family rickettsiaceae.
▪ Which genera belong to the family rickettsiaceae? Name the species belonging to each genera.
▪ Mention the morphological features of rickettsia and orientia.
▪ Morphological features
▪ How are rickettsia and orientia cultured?
▪ Mention the factors affecting survival of rickettsia and orientia.
▪ Which antigens are present in rickettsia and orientia?
▪ Present an outline sketch showing disease development in infections caused by rickettsia and orientia.
▪ Mention the name of the diseases caused by rickettsia and orientia.
▪ Describe various features of rickettsial diseases.
▪ Describe the various laboratory methods of diagnosing rickettsia and orientia infections.
▪ How can rickettsia and orientia infections be treated?
▪ Write a short note on coxiella burnetii.
▪ Write a short note on ehrlichia.
▪ What are Bartonellae? Name the human pathogens and mention the salient features of each.
52. Chlamydiae
▪ What are Chlamydiae?
▪ Mention the general properties of Chlamydiae.
▪ Mention the identifying morphological features of Chlamydiae.
▪ Differentiate between C. trachomatis and C. psittaci.
▪ Describe the developmental cycle of Chlamydiae.
▪ To which factors are Chlamydiae sensitive?
▪ Describe the antigens present in Chlamydiae.
▪ How are Chlamydiae grown for the purpose of identification?
▪ Describe the pathogenicity of Chlamydiae.
▪ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of chlamydial infections.
▪ Which antibiotics can be used for treating chlamydial infections?
53. Mycoplasma
▪ What are Mycoplasma?
▪ Describe the morphological characteristics of Mycoplasma.
▪ Describe the cultural characteristics of Mycoplasma.
▪ Mention the biochemical reactions that distinguish Mycoplasma species.
▪ To which agents are Mycoplasmas susceptible and to which are they resistant?
▪ Name two surface antigens present in Mycoplasma.
▪ Describe infections caused by Mycoplasma spp. and Ureaplasma spp.
▪ Describe the procedures used in laboratory diagnosis of Mycoplasma infections.
▪ How can Mycoplasma infections be treated?
54. Miscellaneous bacteria
▪ What is HACEK group? Mention the important features of its representative species.
▪ Write a short note on Gardnerella vaginalis.
▪ Write a short note on Listeria monocytogenes.
▪ Write a short note on Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.
▪ Write a short note on Calymmatobacterium granulomatis.
▪ State the characteristics of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus.
▪ Write a short note on Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus.
▪ Write a short note on Campylobacter.
▪ Write a short note on Helicobacter. (MI 3.6)
▪ Describe the aetiopathogenesis of acid peptic diseases (APD) and its clinical course. Discuss the diagnosis and management of the causative agent of APD. (MI 3.6)
UNIT IV. VIROLOGY
Introduction
55. General properties of viruses
▪ What does virology deal with?
▪ What are viruses?
▪ Differentiate between viruses and bacteria.
▪ What is the size of viruses and how can it be measured?
▪ Describe the structure and chemical nature of a virus.
▪ What shapes of viruses are generally observed?
▪ Which are the three types of symmetry observed in viruses? Briefly explain the structure of each type and give examples.
▪ Discuss susceptibility of viruses to physical and chemical agents.
▪ Describe the proteins, lipids and carbohydrates found in viruses.
▪ Explain the viral haemagglutination test.
▪ Describe the process of viral replication.
▪ What is the ‘eclipse phase’ in the growth cycle of a virus?
▪ Describe the abnormal replicative cycles in viruses.
▪ How are viruses cultivated? Give a detailed description of each method.
▪ Describe the techniques employed for detecting viral growth in cell cultures.
▪ Describe the various types of viral assays used for analysis of viral infections.
▪ Classify viruses on the basis of the type of nucleic acid and morphological characters.
▪ How is the system of nomenclature designed for naming viruses?
▪ What are viroids?
▪ Write a short note on prions.
56. Virus–host interactions (virus infection)
▪ What are the effects of viral infections expressed in the host? Which cellular mechanisms are involved in causing cell injury?
▪ What are inclusion bodies? How are they useful in identifying viral infections?
▪ Mention the routes by which viruses gain entry into the host. Cite examples.
▪ Briefly describe the methods by which virus spreads in the host.
▪ What is tropism?
▪ What is meant by incubation period? What determines the duration of incubation period in viral infections? Cite examples.
▪ In what possible ways do viruses bring about damage to host tissue, eliciting infection?
▪ When is virus released from the host?
▪ Discuss in detail the host response to viral infections?
▪ How does interferon inhibit spread of viral infection within a host?
▪ Enumerate the properties of interferons.
▪ Mention the agents that induce synthesis of interferons.
▪ What biological effects are produced by interferons?
▪ Mention the therapeutic applications of interferons.
▪ Discuss immunoprophylaxis of viral diseases.
▪ How are viral infections checked?
▪ Mention the inhibitors of attachment and penetration.
▪ Describe the various inhibitors of viral nucleic acid synthesis.
▪ Mention the inhibitors of viral protein synthesis, the step that is targeted by them and an example of viral infection treated by use of such inhibitors.
57. Laboratory diagnosis of viral diseases
▪ What methods are employed for diagnosing viral diseases?
▪ Why is serology preferred to isolation of viruses for the purpose of diagnosis? Under what circumstances is isolation of viruses performed?
▪ What types of specimens are suited for diagnosing viral infections?
▪ What measures should be taken to ensure safe transport of specimens to a laboratory for diagnosis?
▪ List the methods of direct microscopy employed for demonstrating viruses.
▪ Name the methods by which viral antigens are demonstrated.
▪ Mention the methods of detecting nucleic acid of viruses.
▪ Mention the ways of ensuring contamination-free inoculation. Name the methods generally used for cultivating viruses.
▪ Once isolated, how can viruses be identified?
▪ Explain broadly the procedure for serological test. List the various types of serological tests generally adopted for identifying viruses.
58. Bacteriophages
▪ What are bacteriophages?
▪ Briefly narrate the events that led to the discovery of bacteriophages.
▪ Describe the structure of a bacteriophage.
▪ Mention the important characteristics of bacteriophages.
▪ Briefly explain the life cycle of bacteriophages.
▪ Describe the lytic life cycle of a virulent bacteriophage.
▪ Describe the lysogenic life cycle of a temperate bacteriophage.
▪ What is lysogenic conversion?
▪ What is meant by ‘spontaneous induction of prophage’?
▪ Describe bacteriophage typing.
▪ Enumerate the significance of phages.
59. Poxviruses
▪ List the poxviruses that cause diseases in human beings; mention their primary host and the disease caused.
▪ Mention the important properties of smallpox virus.
▪ Mention the factors affecting the survival of poxviruses.
▪ What are the methods by which poxviruses are cultivated?
▪ Very briefly describe the antigenic structure of small poxvirus.
▪ Trace the course of disease development from the point when small poxvirus enters the host.
▪ Describe the clinical features of infections caused by small poxvirus.
▪ Which specimens and laboratory methods are used for diagnosing small poxviruses?
▪ What prophylactic measures have been in use for preventing small poxvirus infections?
▪ Mention salient features of infections caused by the following poxviruses: (a) Cowpox and Milker’s Node, (b) monkeypox, (c) ORF, (d) Tanapox, (e) Molluscum contagiosum and (f) Vaccinia
60. Herpesviruses
▪ Mention the general properties of the family Herpesviridae.
▪ Mention the general properties of Herpesviruses.
▪ Name herpesviruses of medical importance.
▪ Classify herpesviruses into subfamilies. Mention the characteristic features of each subfamily.
▪ Enumerate the general properties of herpes simplex virus (HSV).
▪ Which animals do herpes simplex viruses infect? How can they be grown?
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of herpes simplex virus.
▪ Discuss pathogenicity of herpes simplex virus.
▪ Describe the laboratory methods performed for diagnosing infections caused by herpes simplex virus.
▪ Which drugs are useful in treating herpes simplex virus?
▪ Describe varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infections.
▪ Mention the general properties of varicella-zoster virus (VZV).
▪ Diagrammatically represent the course of disease development in case of infection by varicella-zoster virus.
▪ Describe clinical infections produced by varicella-zoster virus.
▪ How is the laboratory diagnosis of varicella-zoster virus infections performed?
▪ How can varicella-zoster virus infections be treated?
▪ What prophylactic measures can be adopted to prevent varicella-zoster virus infections?
▪ Enumerate the general properties of cytomegalovirus (CMV).
▪ Describe the pathogenesis of cytomegalovirus infections.
▪ Write a short note on clinical features of cytomegalovirus infections.
▪ Describe the laboratory methods used for diagnosing cytomegalovirus infections.
▪ Which drugs are used for treating cytomegalovirus infections?
▪ Mention the general properties of epstein–barr virus (EBV).
▪ How is Epstein–Barr virus transmitted and which tissue is affected?
▪ Describe the clinical features of infections caused by epstein–barr virus (EBV).
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnostic methods for identifying Epstein–Barr virus infections.
▪ How can epstein–barr virus infections be treated and prevented?
61. Adenoviruses
▪ Why are adenoviruses so named?
▪ State the general properties of adenovirus.
▪ Comment on cultivation of adenoviruses.
▪ Mention the resistance of adenoviruses to external conditions.
▪ Classify adenoviruses.
▪ Write the antigenic structure of adenovirus.
▪ Describe the pathogenesis of adenovirus infections.
▪ Name the diseases caused by adenoviruses.
▪ What methods are employed for diagnosing adenovirus infections?
▪ Mention the methods of treatment and prevention of adenovirus infections.
62. Picornaviruses
▪ Mention the important features of picornaviruses.
▪ List the medically important enteroviruses.
▪ Mention the morphological characteristics of poliovirus.
▪ Which external conditions are favourable for the growth of poliovirus and under which conditions can it be destroyed?
▪ Enumerate the antigenic properties of poliovirus.
▪ Comment on cultivation of poliovirus.
▪ Make an outline sketch to describe the pathogenesis of poliovirus.
▪ Mention the clinical features of poliovirus infection.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of poliovirus infection.
▪ Discuss prophylaxis of poliovirus infection.
▪ Mention the general features of coxsackievirus.
▪ Classify coxsackieviruses.
▪ How can coxsackievirus be cultured? Mention the cultural characters of group A and group B viruses.
▪ List the clinical features of coxsackievirus infection.
▪ By which method is coxsackievirus detected in a laboratory?
▪ State the general characters of enteric cytopathic human orphan (ECHO) viruses.
▪ How many serotypes of ECHO virus have been identified?
▪ Comment on cultivation of ECHO viruses.
▪ What are the infections caused by ECHO viruses?
▪ How is ECHO virus infection diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ Which viruses are included in the group ‘other enteroviruses’? Name the diseases caused by each one of them.
▪ State the salient features of rhinovirus.
63. Orthomyxoviruses
▪ Mention the general properties of myxoviruses.
▪ Enumerate the differences between orthomyxoviruses and paramyxoviruses.
▪ Mention the morphological characteristics of influenza virus.
▪ Discuss the process of haemagglutination in influenza virus. How is it helpful in detection of the virus?
▪ To which external factors does influenza virus offer resistance?
▪ Describe the structure of antigens present in influenza virus.
▪ Describe the antigenic variations in influenza virus.
▪ Describe the system of nomenclature in use for influenza virus.
▪ Describe the methods by which influenza virus can be cultivated and detected.
▪ Discuss the pathogenesis and clinical features of influenza virus infection.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of influenza virus infection.
▪ Which drugs can be recommended for treating influenza virus infection?
▪ Write the prophylactic measures for influenza.
▪ What is swine flu?
▪ Describe the swine flu virus and comment on its origin.
▪ Describe the role of pigs in development of new swine flu virus.
▪ Describe the modes of transmission of swine flu.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of swine flu.
▪ Write about prevention and treatment of swine flu.
64. Paramyxoviruses
▪ Name the family and genera to which paramyxoviruses belong. List the important pathogens belonging to these genera.
▪ Enumerate the general properties of paramyxoviruses.
▪ Mention the pathogens belonging to the genus paramyxovirus. Also mention their hosts.
▪ Mention the morphological characteristics of mumps virus.
▪ Write down the methods of cultivation for mumps virus.
▪ Mention the antigenic structure of mumps virus.
▪ How can mumps virus be inactivated?
▪ Diagrammatically represent how mumps infection develops in the body.
▪ Describe the clinical features of mumps.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnostic procedures of mumps.
▪ How is mumps infection treated and prevented?
▪ Write a note on parainfluenza virus.
▪ Write a short note on newcastle disease virus (NDV).
▪ Mention the characteristic morphological features of measles virus.
▪ Write the methods of cultivation and detection of growth for measles virus.
▪ Which external factors can inactivate measles virus? How can it be made to resist heating up till 50°C for 1 hour?
▪ Explain the antigenic structure of measles virus.
▪ Describe the pathogenicity of measles virus.
▪ Describe the clinical features of measles.
▪ Describe the ways in which measles can be diagnosed in a laboratory.
▪ Mention the ways of treatment and prevention of measles infection.
▪ State the general properties of respiratory syncytial virus.
▪ By which methods can respiratory syncytial virus be cultured?
▪ How can respiratory syncytial virus be inactivated and preserved?
▪ How many types of antigens are known in respiratory syncytial virus?
▪ Name the natural hosts of respiratory syncytial virus.
▪ Describe the pathogenicity of respiratory syncytial virus.
▪ What are the clinical features of infections caused by respiratory syncytial virus?
▪ How can respiratory syncytial virus infections be diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ Suggest methods of treating and preventing respiratory syncytial virus infections.
65. Arboviruses
▪ What are arboviruses?
▪ Name the viruses belonging to each of the five taxonomic families of arboviruses.
▪ Mention the characters that are common to arboviruses.
▪ Briefly describe the pathogenesis of arbovirus infection.
▪ Mention the clinical features of arbovirus infections.
▪ Which tests are performed in a laboratory for diagnosing arbovirus infections?
▪ Name the arboviruses that are prevalent in India. Describe the aetiology and clinical features of the infections caused by each virus. Add a note on prevention and control.
▪ What is Zika virus?
▪ Mention modes of transmission of Zika virus.
▪ Describe pathogenicity and clinical features of Zika virus disease.
▪ What are the steps in laboratory diagnosis of Zika virus disease?
▪ Mention preventive methods for Zika virus disease.
66. Rhabdoviruses
▪ What are rhabdoviruses? Mention their family and genera?
▪ Enumerate the morphological characteristics of rabies virus.
▪ Mention the external factors to which rabies virus is sensitive and factors, which can inactivate it.
▪ How can rabies virus be cultured?
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of rabies virus.
▪ Which disease is caused by rabies virus? Draw an outline sketch of the path of disease development.
▪ Describe the clinical features of rabies.
▪ Mention the methods by which rabies can be diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ Describe the prophylactic measures available for preventing the spread of rabies virus in an individual bitten by a rabid animal.
67. Hepatitis viruses
▪ Enumerate the hepatitis-causing viruses.
▪ What are the morphological and cultural features of hepatitis A virus?
▪ Describe ‘resistance’ of hepatitis A virus.
▪ Briefly describe the pathogenicity of hepatitis A virus.
▪ What are the clinical features of hepatitis A virus infection (infectious hepatitis)?
▪ Write a short note on laboratory diagnosis of hepatitis A virus infection.
▪ How would you treat hepatitis A virus infection?
▪ What measures should be taken to prevent the spread of hepatitis A virus infection?
▪ To which family does hepatitis B virus (HBV) belong? Mention its properties.
▪ Describe the antigenic structure of hepatitis B virus.
▪ How can hepatitis B virus be cultured?
▪ Describe ‘resistance’ of hepatitis B virus.
▪ How is hepatitis B virus transmitted?
▪ What are the possible consequences of hepatitis B virus infection?
▪ Mention the clinical features of hepatitis B virus infection (serum hepatitis).
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of hepatitis B virus infection.
▪ Write about prophylaxis for hepatitis B virus infection.
▪ How is hepatitis B virus infection treated?
▪ Write a short note on hepatitis C virus (HCV).
▪ Write a short note on hepatitis D virus (HDV).
▪ Write a short note on hepatitis E virus (HEV).
▪ Comment on hepatitis G virus (HGV). Describe its pathogenicity.
68. Oncogenic viruses
▪ What are oncogenic viruses?
▪ Name the families and viruses responsible for causing cancer in humans.
▪ Diagrammatically represent the mechanism by which neoplasm develops.
▪ What are oncogenes and how do they originate in a normal cell? What is their role in causing cancer?
▪ How can oncogenes be studied?
▪ Mention the properties of transformed cells (cancer cells).
▪ Name the oncogenic viruses and the type of cancers they cause.
69. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
▪ Which virus causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)?
▪ When was HIV first observed? Who isolated it and what was it called earlier?
▪ Describe the morphological features of HIV.
▪ Describe the genes and antigens of HIV.
▪ Describe ‘resistance’ of HIV.
▪ Mention the routes of HIV transmission and their percent efficiency in spreading infection.
▪ Explain replication of HIV.
▪ Trace the course of disease development in case of HIV infection.
▪ In HIV infection, why is there fall in CD4 lymphocytes?
▪ What are the effects of fall in CD4 lymphocytes on CMI and humoral immunity?
▪ Describe the clinical features of HIV infection.
▪ Write in short about epidemiology of HIV.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnostic methods for detecting HIV infection.
▪ By which methods is HIV infection monitored in a laboratory?
▪ Which HIV testing strategies are followed in India?
▪ What treatment is recommended for HIV infection?
▪ How can infection with HIV be prevented?
70. Miscellaneous viruses
▪ What are papovaviruses?
▪ Name medically important papovavirus.
▪ Name the diseases caused by human papillomavirus along with the type of the causal virus.
▪ Write a short note on parvovirus.
▪ What is the medical significance of rubella virus?
▪ Mention the properties of rubella virus.
▪ Describe the infection caused by rubella virus.
▪ Briefly describe the laboratory diagnosis of rubella infection.
▪ Name the viruses that cause diarrhoea.
▪ Write a short note on rotavirus.
▪ Mention the general properties and pathogenicity of Norwalk virus.
▪ How can norwalk virus infection be diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ What are Coronaviruses? Enumerate their general properties and pathogenicity.
▪ What are the methods by which coronavirus infections can be diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ Write in brief about prophylaxis and treatment for coronavirus infections.
▪ What are Astroviruses?
▪ Name the viruses that cause haemorrhagic fever. Add a note on Ebola Virus.
▪ What are the slow virus diseases?
▪ What are the characteristics of ‘slow viruses’?
▪ Classify the slow virus diseases. Comment on features of slow virus diseases occurring in human beings.
UNIT V. MYCOLOGY
Introduction
71. Introduction to mycology
▪ What do mycology and medical mycology deal with?
▪ Who is the Father of Mycology?
▪ Comment on fungal infections.
▪ What are fungi?
▪ What is a hypha and a pseudohypha? Differentiate between the two.
▪ Describe different types of hyphae with suitable illustrations.
▪ What is mycelium?
▪ What are spores? Describe different types of spores.
▪ What are the differences between fungi and bacteria?
▪ Write a note on the morphological classification of fungi.
▪ Present the systemic classification of fungi.
▪ What factors predispose to fungal infections?
▪ Describe the different types of mycoses.
▪ Describe in detail the laboratory diagnosis of fungal diseases. (MI 8.9, MI 8.10, MI 8.13)
▪ Name different types of antifungal agents.
72. Superficial mycoses
▪ What is superficial mycoses? Write a note on superficial fungal infections and their causative agents.
▪ Write a note on Pityriasis (Tinea) versicolor.
▪ Write a note on Tinea Nigra.
▪ Write a note on Piedra.
▪ Define and classify dermatophytes.
▪ Briefly describe pathogenesis of dermatophytoses.
▪ Describe in detail the clinical features of dermatophytoses.
▪ Describe the methods of diagnosing dermatophytoses in a laboratory.
▪ How can dermatophytoses be treated?
73. Deep mycoses
▪ Mention different types of deep mycotic infections.
▪ Mention the diseases and causal agents of different types of subcutaneous mycoses.
▪ What is mycetoma?
▪ Classify mycetoma on the basis of causative agents and colour of granules.
▪ List the bacterial and fungal agents responsible for causing mycetoma.
▪ Comment on geographical distribution of mycetoma.
▪ Which age group and sex are most likely to acquire mycetoma and why?
▪ How is mycetoma transmitted to human beings?
▪ What are the clinical features of mycetoma?
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of mycetoma.
▪ Mention the treatment options for eumycetoma and actinomycetoma.
▪ Write short note on rhinosporidiosis.
▪ Write a note on sporotrichosis.
▪ Write a short note on chromoblastomycosis.
▪ Write a short note on phaeohyphomycosis.
▪ Tabulate clinical conditions of systemic mycoses along with their causative agents.
▪ What is candidiasis? Mention its Aetiology, Source of infection, and Predisposing factors.
▪ Describe the clinical forms of candidiasis.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of candidiasis.
▪ Mention the drugs used in the treatment of candidiasis.
▪ What is cryptococcosis?
▪ Which fungus causes cryptococcosis? Name its varieties and serotypes.
▪ Describe the clinical features of cryptococcosis.
▪ Mention the methods used in laboratory diagnosis of cryptococcosis.
▪ Which drug is used in the treatment of cryptococcosis?
▪ Define histoplasmosis. Mention its aetiology.
▪ State the geographical distribution of histoplasmosis.
▪ How is histoplasmosis transmitted?
▪ Describe the clinical features of histoplasmosis.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of histoplasmosis.
▪ How is histoplasmosis treated?
▪ What causes dubosii histoplasmosis? How is it different from H. capsulatum?
▪ Write a short note on blastomycosis.
▪ Which drugs are recommended for treating blastomycosis?
▪ Write a short note on coccidioidomycosis.
▪ Write a short note on paracoccidioidomycosis.
74. Opportunistic mycoses
▪ Explain opportunistic mycoses.
▪ Write a note on aspergillosis.
▪ Laboratory diagnosis
▪ Write a note on zygomycosis.
▪ Discuss the pathogenicity of zygomycetes.
▪ Write a note on pneumocystosis.
▪ Describe the morphological forms of Pneumocystis carinii.
75. Miscellaneous mycoses
▪ Define keratomycosis. Mention its aetiology, predisposing factors, and clinical features.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of keratomycosis.
▪ How can keratomycosis be treated?
▪ Define otomycosis. Mention its aetiology and clinical features.
▪ How can otomycosis be diagnosed in a laboratory?
▪ How would you treat otomycosis?
▪ Write in brief about mycotoxicosis.
▪ Define mycetismus. What are its clinical features?
UNIT VI. PARASITOLOGY
Introduction
76. Introduction to parasitology
▪ What is parasitology? What does medical parasitology deal with?
▪ Define the following terms: Parasite and host.
▪ Mention the different classes of parasites.
▪ Mention the different types of host.
▪ Comment on the nomenclature of parasites.
▪ Describe in brief the morphological features of protozoan parasites.
▪ Comment on trophozoite and cyst stages of protozoan parasites.
▪ Classify protozoan parasites.
▪ What are helminths? What are different groups of helminths?
▪ Write the differences between cestodes, trematodes and nematodes.
▪ Write the general features of cestodes.
▪ Mention the important cestodes infecting humans.
▪ Mention the general features of trematodes.
▪ Classify important trematodes that infect humans.
▪ Mention the general features of nematodes.
▪ Classify nematodes.
▪ Enumerate the intestinal nematodes found in human beings.
▪ Enumerate the tissue nematodes found in human beings.
77. Medically important amoebae
▪ Enumerate the protozoa causing intestinal infections.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Entamoeba histolytica. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for amoebiasis.
▪ Write a short note on pathogenic free-living amoebae. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write the features that differentiate Entamoeba histolytica from Entamoeba coli.
78. Medically important flagellates
▪ Classify flagellates on the basis of their habitat.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Giardia lamblia. (Mi 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for giardiasis.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for T. vaginalis infection.
▪ What are haemoflagellates? Enumerate the haemoflagellates found in humans.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Leishmania donovani. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for leishmaniasis.
▪ Write a short note on Leishmania tropica.
▪ Write a short note on prophylactic measures and treatment.
▪ Write a short note on Leishmania braziliensis.
▪ Write a short note on prophylactic measures and treatment.
79. Malarial parasites
▪ Enumerate the species of Plasmodia causing malaria. Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of malarial parasites. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for malaria.
80. Other medically important protozoan parasites
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for toxoplasmosis.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Balantidium coli. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for balantidiasis.
▪ Discuss in brief Cryptosporidium parvum. (MI 2.5)
▪ Discuss in brief Isospora belli. (MI 2.5)
81. Helminths: Medically important intestinal cestodes
▪ State the common name, history, geographical distribution, habitat, morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Taenia solium (pork tapeworm). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for taeniasis.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Echinococcus granulosus. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for hydatid disease.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Hymenolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for hymenolepiasis.
82. Medically important trematodes
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium (the vesical blood fluke). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for urinary schistosomiasis.
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of S. Mansoni (Manson’s blood fluke).
▪ Write in short the treatment for schistosomiasis mansoni.
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of S. japonicum (the oriental blood fluke).
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for schistosomiasis japonica.
▪ Describe in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Paragonimus westermani (oriental lung fluke). (MI 2.5)
▪ Mention the prophylactic measures and treatment for paragonimiasis.
▪ Describe in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Fasciolopsis buski (giant intestinal fluke). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for fascioliasis.
83. Medically important intestinal nematodes
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle and pathogenicity of Ascaris lumbricoides. Describe the laboratory diagnosis of ascariasis. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for ascariasis.
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle and pathogenicity of Ancylostoma duodenale. Describe laboratory diagnosis of ancylostomiasis. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for ancylostomiasis.
▪ Write a short note on N. americanus.
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Trichuris trichiura (whipworm). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for trichuriasis.
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm, threadworm, seatworm). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for enterobiasis.
84. Medically important tissue nematodes
▪ Enumerate the medically important tissue nematodes.
▪ Discuss in brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Wuchereria bancrofti (Bancroft’s filariasis). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for wuchereriasis.
▪ Discuss in the brief the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Brugia malayi (wuchereria malayi, Malayan filariasis). (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for Malayan filariasis.
▪ Describe the morphology, life cycle, pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of Dracunculus medinensis. (MI 2.5)
▪ Write in short the prophylactic measures and treatment for dracunculosis.
UNIT VII. CLINICAL/APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY AND MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Introduction
85. Infective endocarditis
▪ Define and classify infective endocarditis. (MI 2.2)
▪ Enumerate the common microorganisms causing infective endocarditis. (MI 2.2)
▪ Briefly discuss the pathogenesis of infective endocarditis. (MI 2.2)
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of infective endocarditis. (MI 2.3)
▪ Write in brief about the treatment and prophylaxis of infective endocarditis.
86. Septicaemia and bacteraemia
▪ Explain septicaemia.
▪ Define pyaemia.
▪ What is toxaemia?
▪ Define bacteraemia.
▪ Enumerate the common microorganisms that cause septicaemia and bacteraemia.
▪ Briefly discuss the pathogenesis of septicaemia.
▪ Mention the clinical features and complications of septicaemia.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of septicaemia/bacteraemia.
▪ Mention the ways in which septicaemia/bacteraemia can be treated.
87. Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO)
▪ Explain ‘pyrexia of unknown origin’ (PUO).
▪ What are the common causes of PUO?
▪ Discuss the pathogenesis of PUO.
▪ State the clinical features of PUO.
▪ Describe the methods used in laboratory diagnosis of PUO.
▪ How can PUO be treated?
88. Anaemia
▪ List the common microbial agents causing anaemia.
▪ Describe the morphology and mode of infection, and discuss the pathogenesis, clinical course, diagnosis and prevention and treatment of the common microbial agents causing anaemia.
89. Diarrhoeal diseases
▪ Define the following terms: (a) diarrhoea, (b) gastroenteritis, (c) dysentery, (d) traveller’s diarrhoea and (e) food poisoning.
▪ Enumerate the most common aetiological agents that cause diarrhoea. (MI 3.1)
▪ Discuss the pathogenesis of diarrhoeal diseases.
▪ Mention the clinical features of diarrhoeal diseases.
▪ Write in brief about epidemiology of diarrhoeal diseases.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of diarrhoeal diseases. (MI 3.2)
▪ How can diarrhoeal diseases be treated?
▪ What is food poisoning? (MI 3.5)
▪ Classify food poisoning.
▪ Enumerate the factors predisposing to food poisoning.
▪ Mention the causes of food poisoning.
▪ Discuss the pathogenesis of food poisoning.
▪ What are the clinical features of food poisoning?
▪ What basic information is required for investigating a case of food poisoning? Mention the specimens and methods used for detecting the causative agents.
▪ What precautions should be taken to prevent food poisoning?
90. Bone and joint infections
▪ Describe in brief bone and joint infections. (MI 4.2)
▪ Enumerate the aetiological agents of infectious arthritis.
▪ Write in brief about the clinical course of infectious arthritis.
▪ Describe in brief the laboratory diagnosis of infectious arthritis.
▪ Write a note on the treatment of infectious arthritis.
▪ Enumerate the aetiological agents of osteomyelitis.
▪ Write in brief about the clinical course of osteomyelitis.
▪ Describe in brief the laboratory diagnosis of osteomyelitis.
▪ Write a note on the treatment of osteomyelitis.
91. Infections of skin and soft tissue
▪ Enumerate the causes of skin and soft-tissue infections.
▪ Describe in brief the clinical course of skin and soft-tissue infections.
▪ Discuss in brief the laboratory diagnosis of infections of skin and soft tissue.
▪ Write in short about the treatment of infections of skin and soft tissue.
92. Meningitis/encephalitis
▪ Define meningitis.
▪ Describe the different types of meningitis.
▪ Mention the most common agents causing meningitis. (MI 5.1)
▪ Describe the clinical course of meningitis.
▪ What is encephalitis? Mention the common agents causing encephalitis. (MI 5.2)
▪ Write in brief the clinical course of encephalitis.
▪ How can diagnosis of meningitis/encephalitis be made in a laboratory? (MI 5.1 and MI 5.3)
▪ How would you treat meningitis?
▪ How would you treat encephalitis?
93. Respiratory tract infections (RTI)
▪ What are respiratory tract infections? Comment on their spread.
▪ Enumerate the most common aetiological agents of respiratory tract infections. (MI 6.1)
▪ Briefly describe the pathogenesis of respiratory tract infections.
▪ What are the clinical features of respiratory tract infections?
▪ Explain sore throat. Comment on its causes and pathogenesis.
▪ Mention the clinical features of sore throat.
▪ Explain pneumonia. Which microbial agents are common causes of pneumonia?
▪ How is pneumonia transmitted?
▪ Describe the clinical features of pneumonia.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of respiratory tract infections. (MI 6.2 and MI 6.3)
▪ Describe in brief the preventive strategies for upper and lower respiratory tract infections.
▪ Suggest treatment for respiratory tract infections.
94. Urinary tract infections (UTI)
▪ Define urinary tract infection.
▪ Describe the different types of urinary tract infections.
▪ Mention the most common aetiological agents of urinary tract infections.
▪ Discuss the pathogenesis of urinary tract infections.
▪ Mention the clinical features of urinary tract infections.
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract infections.
▪ How should urinary tract infections be treated?
95. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and infections of genitourinary system
▪ Explain sexually transmitted diseases.
▪ Name sexually transmitted diseases along with their causal agents and describe in brief their pathogenesis. (MI 7.3)
▪ Describe the laboratory diagnosis of STDs.
▪ Write a short note on the prevention and control of STDs and their treatment.
▪ Describe the aetiopathogenesis and discuss the laboratory diagnosis of infections of genitourinary system. (MI 7.2)
96. Zoonoses
▪ Define zoonoses. Mention the occupational groups at risk.
▪ Mention the sources and routes of zoonosis.
▪ How are zoonotic diseases transmitted?
▪ Classify zoonoses on the basis of the life cycle of the infecting organism.
▪ Classify zoonoses on the basis of aetiological agents. Name these agents, the diseases caused by them and the animals in which they are present.
▪ Describe the morphology, mode of transmission and pathogenesis, and discuss the clinical course.
▪ Write a note on the laboratory diagnosis of zoonoses.
▪ Describe prevention and control, and treatment of zoonotic diseases.
97. Opportunistic infections
▪ Enumerate the microorganisms causing opportunistic infections.
▪ Discuss the factors contributing to the occurrence of OI.
▪ Write in brief about the pathogenesis of opportunistic pathogens.
▪ Write in brief the methods used in the laboratory diagnosis of opportunistic infections.
▪ Write a short note on the prevention and control of opportunistic infections.
▪ Write a short note on the treatment of opportunistic infections.
98. Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases
▪ Define emerging infectious diseases.
▪ Name the causative agents of emerging infectious diseases and diseases caused by them.
▪ Define re-emerging or resurging diseases.
▪ Name the causative agents of re-emerging diseases and diseases caused by them.
▪ Discuss the clinical course.
▪ Discuss in brief the laboratory diagnosis of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases.
99. Health care–associated infections
▪ What are healthcare-associated infections (HAI)?
▪ Enumerate the most common microorganisms causing HAI.
▪ What are the sources of hospital infections?
▪ How are hospital infections transmitted?
▪ Describe the common types of hospital infections.
▪ Comment on the laboratory diagnosis of hospital-acquired infections.
▪ Suggest the methods for the prevention and control of hospital-acquired infections.
100. Infection control practices
▪ What are universal precautions?
▪ Write a note on standard precautions.
▪ What are transmission-based precautions?
101. Bacteriology of water, milk and air
▪ Discuss the role of water in transmitting infection.
▪ What is meant by safe drinking water?
▪ Write a short note on bacterial flora of water.
▪ Name the disease-causing pathogens present in polluted water.
▪ Comment on indicator bacteria.
▪ How is bacteriological examination of water carried out?
▪ Mention the types of bacteria found in milk.
▪ Enumerate the milk-borne diseases and infections.
▪ Describe the tests used in bacteriological examination of milk.
▪ Describe the tests used for examining specific pathogens present in milk.
▪ Discuss bacteriology of air.
▪ Give the name of important setups where bacteriological examination of air is required.
▪ Describe the methods for carrying out bacterial examination of air and environmental dust.
102. Respect for patient samples and confidentiality in patient identity
▪ Describe in brief about how to demonstrate respect for patient samples sent to the laboratory for performance of laboratory tests in the detection of microbial agents causing infectious diseases.
▪ Discuss confidentiality pertaining to patient identity in laboratory results.
103. National Health Programmes
▪ Describe the National Health Programmes in the prevention of common infectious diseases.
Index

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B. S. Nagoba

ASHA PICHARE