Lead-Acid Batteries: Science and Technology

Part 1. Fundamentals of Lead–Acid Batteries

Chapter 1. Invention and Development of the Lead–Acid Battery

• 1.1. A Prelude
• 1.2. Gaston Planté—The Inventor of the Lead–Acid Battery
• 1.3. What Pains Had the Lead–Acid Battery to Go Through
• 1.4. The Lead–Acid Battery in the 20th Century—Second Stage in Its Development
• 1.5. Applications of Lead–Acid Batteries
• 1.6. Challenges Calling for a New Stage in the Development of the Lead–Acid Battery

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Lead–Acid Batteries

• 2.1. Thermodynamics of the Lead–Acid Battery
• 2.2. Electrode Systems Formed During Anodic Polarization of Pb in H₂SO₄ Solution
• 2.3. The Pb/PbSO₄/H₂SO₄ Electrode
• 2.4. H₂/H⁺ Electrode on Pb Surface
• 2.5. The Pb/PbO/PbSO₄ Electrode System
• 2.6. The Pb/PbO₂/PbSO₄ Electrode System
• 2.7. Electrochemical Preparation of the Me/PbO₂ Electrode
• 2.8. Electrochemical Behavior of the Pb/PbO₂/H₂SO₄ Electrode
• 2.9. Hydration and Amorphization of Active-Mass PbO₂ Particles and Impact on the Discharge Processes
• 2.10. The H₂O/O₂ Electrode System
• 2.11. Elementary Processes During Charge and Discharge of the Positive and Negative Electrodes in a Lead–Acid Cell
• 2.12. Anodic Corrosion of Lead and Lead Alloys in the Lead Dioxide Potential Region
• 2.13. Introduction to the Lead–Acid Cell

Part 2. Materials Used for Lead–Acid Battery Manufacture

Chapter 3. H₂SO₄ Electrolyte—An Active Material in the Lead–Acid Cell

• 3.1. H₂SO₄ Solutions Used as Electrolytes in the Battery Industry
• 3.2. Purity of H₂SO₄ Used in Lead–Acid Batteries
• 3.3. Dissociation of H₂SO₄
• 3.4. Electrical Conductivity of H₂SO₄ Solutions
• 3.5. Influence of Temperature on the Performance of Lead–Acid Batteries
• 3.5.1. Influence of Temperature on Water Loss in Lead–Acid Batteries
• 3.6. Dependence of the Electromotive Force of a Lead–Acid Cell on Electrolyte Concentration and Its Influence on Charge Voltage
• 3.7. Distribution of the Sulfuric Acid Solution in the Active Block of the Cell
• 3.8. Utilization of the Active Materials in the Lead–Acid Battery and Battery Performance
• 3.9. Correlation Between the Electrochemical Activity of PbO₂/PbSO₄ Electrode and H₂SO₄ Electrolyte Concentration
• 3.10. Correlation Between Solubility of PbSO₄ Crystals and Electrolyte Concentration
• 3.11. Influence of H₂SO₄ Electrolyte Concentration on Battery Performance
• 3.12. Additives to Electrolyte
• 3.13. Contaminants (Impurities) in Electrolyte Solution
• 3.14. Processes Causing Electrolyte Stratification and Influence of Electrolyte Stratification on Battery Performance

Chapter 4. Lead Alloys and Grids. Grid Design Principles

• 4.1. Battery Industry Requirements to Lead Alloys
• 4.2. Purity Specifications for Lead Used in the Battery Industry
• 4.3. Lead–Antimony Alloys
• 4.4. Lead–Calcium Alloys
• 4.5. Lead–Calcium–Tin Alloys
• 4.6. Lead–Tin Alloys
• 4.7. Grid Design Principles
• 4.8. Grid/Spine Casting
• 4.9. Continuous Plate Production Process
• 4.10. Tubular Positive Plates
• 4.11. Copper-Stretch-Metal Negative Grids

Chapter 5. Leady Oxide

• 5.1. Physical Properties of Lead Oxide and Red Lead
• 5.2. Mechanism of Thermal Oxidation of Lead
• 5.3. Production of Leady Oxide
• 5.4. Characteristics of Leady Oxide
• 5.5. Influence of Leady Oxide Properties on Battery Performance Characteristics

Part 3. Processes During Paste Preparation and Curing of the Plates

Chapter 6. Pastes and Grid Pasting

• 6.1. Introduction
• 6.2. Fundamentals
• 6.3. Technology of Paste Preparation

Chapter 7. Additives to the Pastes for Positive and Negative Battery Plates

• 7.1. Additives to the Pastes for Negative Plate Manufacture
• 7.2. Additives to the Positive Paste

Chapter 8. Curing of Battery Plates

• 8.1. Introduction
• 8.2. Fundamentals
• 8.3. Technology of Plate Curing

Part 4. Plate Formation

Chapter 9. Soaking of Cured Plates Before Formation

• 9.1. Technological Procedures Involved in the Formation of Lead–Acid Battery Plates
• 9.2. H₂SO₄ Electrolyte During Soaking and Formation
• 9.3. Processes During Soaking of 3BS-Cured Plates
• 9.4. Soaking of 4BS-Cured Pastes
• 9.5. Influence of the Soaking Process on Battery Performance

Chapter 10. Formation of Positive Lead–Acid Battery Plates

• 10.1. Equilibrium Potentials of the Electrode Systems Formed During the Formation Process
• 10.2. Formation of Positive Active Mass (PAM) From 3BS-Cured Pastes
• 10.3. Formation of Plates Prepared With 4BS-Cured Pastes
• 10.4. Mechanisms of the Crystallization Processes During Formation of Positive Plates With 4BS Paste
• 10.5. Structure of the Formed Interface Grid/Corrosion Layer/Active Mass
• 10.6. Influence of the H₂SO₄/LO Ratio on the Proportion Between β- and α-PbO₂ in PAM and on Plate Capacity
• 10.7. Structure of the Positive Active Mass
• 10.8. Influence of Grid-Alloying Additives on the Electrochemical Activity of PbO₂ Binders

Chapter 11. Processes During Formation of Negative Battery Plates

• 11.1. Equilibrium Potentials of the Electrochemical Reactions of Formation
• 11.2. Reactions During Formation of Negative Plate
• 11.3. Zonal Processes
• 11.4. Structure of Negative Active Mass
• 11.5. Effect of Expander on the Processes of Formation of NAM Structure and Factors Responsible for Expander Disintegration

Chapter 12. Technology of Formation

• 12.1. Introduction
• 12.2. Influence of Active Mass Structure on Plate Capacity
• 12.3. Initial Stages of Formation of Lead–Acid Batteries
• 12.4. Formation of Positive- and Negative Active Materials From Cured Pastes
• 12.5. Influence of PbO₂ Crystal Modifications on the Capacity of Positive Plates. Formation Parameters That Affect the α/β-PbO₂ Proportion
• 12.6. Criteria Indicating End of Formation
• 12.7. Influence of Current-Collector Surface on Formation of PbSO₄ Crystals at Grid/PAM Interface
• 12.8. Method for Shortening the Duration of the Formation Process
• 12.9. Identification of Defective Batteries After Formation

Part 5. Battery Storage and VRLA Batteries

Chapter 13. Processes After Formation of the Plates and During Battery Storage

• 13.1. State of Battery Plates After Formation
• 13.2. Dry-Charged Batteries
• 13.3. Wet-Charged Batteries

Chapter 14. Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid (VRLA) Batteries

• 14.1. Recombination of Hydrogen and Oxygen Into Water
• 14.2. Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid Batteries (VRLAB)
• 14.3. Summary

Chapter 15. Lead–Carbon Electrodes

• 15.1. Introduction
• 15.2. Carbon Used as Additive to the Negative Active Material
• 15.3. Enhancing the Performance of the Negative Plates of Lead–Acid Batteries by Combining With a Supercapacitor
• 15.4. Hydrogen Evolution on the Lead–Carbon Electrode
• 15.5. Sulfation of the Lead–Carbon Electrodes of Lead–Acid Batteries on High-Rate Partial-State-of-Charge Cycling

Part 6. Calculation of the Active Materials in a Lead–Acid Cell

Chapter 16. Calculation of the Active Materials for Lead–Acid Cells

• 16.1. Theoretical Calculation of the Active Materials in Lead–Acid Batteries
• 16.2. Examples for Calculating the Active Materials and the Energy Needed for the Different Technological Processes of Lead–Acid Battery Manufacture
• 16.3. Measuring of Electrode Potentials