Isotopic Tracers in Biology

ContentsPreface to Third Edition I. Atomic Nuclei, Radioactivity, and the Production of Radioactive Isotopes 1. Introductory Remarks 2. General Properties of Nuclei A. Nuclear Structure B. Mass Number and Atomic Number C. Isotopes D. Nuclear Mass E. Other Fundamental Nuclear Properties 3. Systematics of Nuclei A. Introduction B. Isotope Classification and Nuclear Forces C. Isotope Ratios D. Specific Activity and Atomic Per Cent Excess 4. Radioactivity A. Types of Radioactive Decay B. Fundamental Decay Law C. Half-Life and Mean Life D. Radioactive Chains E. Branch Disintegrations F. Radioactivity Units 5. Nuclear Reactions 6. Neutron-Induced Transmutations A. General Remarks B. Neutron Sources C. Neutron Reactions 7. Deuteron-Induced Transmutations A. General Remarks B. Deuteron Reactions 8. Target Techniques and Radiochemistry A. Target Chemistry B. Separation of Isotopes by the Szilard-Chalmers Process C. Survey of Radiochemistry General References II. Radiation Characteristics of Tracer Atoms 1. Introduction 2. Beta Radiations A. The Nature of Beta Radiations B. The Absorption of Beta Particles C. Remarks on Scattering of Beta Particles 3. Gamma Radiations A. Nature of Gamma Radiation B. Interaction of Gamma Radiation with Matter General References III. Isotopic Assay 1. Introduction 2. Assay of Radioactivity A. Basic Phenomena B. Basic Instruments C. Assay in Liquid and Solid Media—Scintillation Counters D. Auxiliary Instrumentation E. Corrections in Radioactive Assay F. Statistical Aspects of Radioactive Assay G. Standards in Radioactive Assay and Determination of Tracer Intensity H. Radioautography 3. Assay of Stable Isotopes A. Introduction B. Density Methods C. Assay by Electromagnetic Methods General ReferencesIV. Radiation Hazards 1. General Remarks 2. Health Physics Instrumentation 3. Dosage Calculations 4. Shielding General References V. Practical Interlude 1. General Remarks 2. Some Procedures Associated with Sample Preparation for Radioactivity Assay 3. Gas Counting 4. Some Remarks on Vacuum Technique 5. Combustion of Labeled Materials 6. Assay Apparatus for Gas Counting General References VI. Survey of Tracer Methodology: Biochemical Aspects, Part I 1. The Significance of Tracer Methods for Biology 2. Biochemical Applications A. General Tracer Requirements B. Basic Limitations C. The Dynamic State of Cell Constituents and the Concept of the "Metabolic Pool" D. Precursor-Product Researches E. Metabolic Cycles and Detection of Intermediates F. The Method of Isotopic Competition G. Ogston's Hypothesis H. Reversibility of Biochemical Equilibria I. Mechanism of Enzyme Action J. Analysis by Isotope Dilution K. Concluding Remarks VII. Survey of Tracer Methods: Biochemical Aspects, Part II 1. Special Topics in Intermediary Metabolism A. CO2 Fixation in Photosynthesis B. Biosynthesis of Cholesterol C. Biosynthesis of Porphyrin D. Concluding Remarks 2. Some Critical Remarks on Tracer Methodology in Studies of Intermediary Metabolism General References (Chapters VI and VII) VIII. Survey of Tracer Methodology: Physiological and Medical Aspects 1. Introduction 2. Physiological Applications A. Permeability, Absorption, and Distribution Studies B. Determination of Intracellular and Extracellular Space by Isotope Dilution Techniques C. Metabolic Turnover in Relation to the Intact Organism D. Transport Studies 3. Applications to Clinical Research A. Determination of Circulation Time: Capillary Transport B. Uptake, Retention, and Excretion, Particularly in Relation to Extension of Radiation Therapy and Diagnosis C. Applications in Hematology D. Immunological Studies 4. Special Topics and Concluding Remarks A. Interaction of Vesicants with Protein B. Mode of Action and Biosynthesis of Penicillin C. Effect of a Metabolic Accelerator D. Virus Metabolism and Biosynthesis E. Enzymatic Bases for Use of Chemotherapeutic Agents F. Concluding Remarks General References IX. The Isotopes of Hydrogen 1. Introduction 2. Assay of Deuterium 3. Assay of Tritium 4. Deuterium and Tritium as Tracers for Hydrogen 5. Deuterium and Tritium as Auxiliary Tracers for Carbon 6. Use of Hydrogen Isotopes in Clinical Research with Remarks on Incidental Radiation Hazards General ReferencesX. The Isotopes of Carbon 1. Introduction 2. Short-Lived Radioactive Carbon, C¹¹ 3. Heavy Stable Carbon, C13 A. Introduction Â. Assay 4. Long-Lived Radioactive Carbon, C14 A. History B. Preparation and Properties C. Assay of C14 D. Synthesis of Organic Intermediates for Tracer Carbon Studies E. Biosynthesis of Labeled Carbon Compounds F. Degradation Methods G. Radiation Hazards XI. The Isotopes of Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur 1. The Oxygen Isotopes A. Introduction B. Preparation and Assay C. The Use of O18 as a Tracer in Oxygen Metabolism 2. The Nitrogen Isotopes A. Introduction B. Preparation and Assay of N15 C. The Use of N16 as a Tracer for Nitrogen 3. The Phosphorus Isotopes A. Production, Preparation, and Assay B. The Use of P32 as a Tracer C. Radiation Hazards 4. The Sulfur Isotopes A. Preparation, Properties, and Assay B. Tracer Applications of S36 C. Distribution and Retention of Sulfur, with Remarks on Radiation Tolerance Dose D. Synthesis of S35-Labeled Compounds E. Protein Turnover in Vivo and in Vitro XII. Various Radioactive Nuclides of Importance in Biology 1. Introduction 2. Alkali Metal and Alkaline Earth Tracers A. General Survey of Alkali Metal Tracers B. Preparation, Properties, and Assay C. The Alkaline Earth Tracers—Magnesium, Calcium, and Strontium 3. Tracer Isotopes of Halogens A. Fluorine B. Chlorine C. Bromine D. Iodine E. Radiation Hazards 4. Trace Elements A. Introduction B. Manganese C. Iron D. Cobalt E. Copper F. Zinc G. Molybdenum, Vanadium, and Tungsten H. Arsenic I. Selenium, Antimony, and Tellurium J. Silver, Gold, and Mercury K. Concluding Remarks Bibliography Appendixes 1. Radioactivity Units and Standards 2. Some Typical Working Rules for Radiochemistry Laboratories 3. Chromatography 4. Radioactive Nuclides of Interest in Biological Tracer Research 5. Remarks on the Use of Liquid Scintillation Detectors in Assay of Biologically Important NuclidesAuthor Index Subject Index