Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies

Biology, Pharmacology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

1st Edition - December 31, 2016
Editor: Victor R Preedy
Language: English
Hardback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 0 0 7 5 6 - 3
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 0 0 8 2 7 - 0

Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies: Biology, Pharmacology, Diagnosis, and Treatment is the first book to take an interdisciplinary approach to the understanding of cannab… Read more

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Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies: Biology, Pharmacology, Diagnosis, and Treatment is the first book to take an interdisciplinary approach to the understanding of cannabis use and misuse. Recent worldwide trends toward decriminalizing marijuana for medical use have increased legal use of the drug and recreational use remains high, making cannabis one of the most commonly used drugs.

Cannabis has a wide range of adverse neurological effects, and use and abuse can lead to physical, social, and psychopathological issues that are multifarious and complex. Effective understanding and treatment requires knowledge of the drug’s effects from across scientific disciplines.

This book provides an overview of the biological and pharmacological components of the cannabis plant, outlines its neurological, social, and psychopathological effects, assists in the diagnosis and screening for use and dependency, and aids researchers in developing effective treatments for cannabis-related issues and disorders.

Fully illustrated, with contributions from internationally recognized experts, it is the go-to resource for neuroscientists, pharmacologists, pathologists, public-health workers, and any other researcher who needs an in-depth and cross-disciplinary understanding of cannabis and its effects.

Cover
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Preface
Part I: Setting the Scene, Botanical, General and International Aspects
Chapter 1: The Cannabis Plant: Botanical Aspects
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Botany of Cannabis
Mini-Dictionary
Chapter 2: The Biosynthesis of Cannabinoids
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabinoid precursor biosynthesis
Cannabinoid pathway
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgment
Chapter 3: Increasing Plant Concentrations of THC and Implications on Health Related Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis plants: has the potency changed?
Does higher cannabis potency lead to increased exposure to THC?
Does higher exposure to THC increase the risk of adverse health effects?
Different explanations for increased risk of adverse health effects
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 4: Age as a Predictor of Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 5: Lifetime Cannabis Use and Cognition in Psychosis Spectrum Disorders
Abstract
Introduction
Cognitive effects of long-term use of cannabis in psychotic patients
Superior cognitive functioning of psychotic patients who use cannabis: explicative hypothesis
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 6: A Profile of Synthetic Cannabinoid Users
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 7: Dual Disorders in Cannabis Misuse
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
The cannabinoid system in psychiatric disorders
Cannabis dependence and mental disorders
Madrid study on the prevalence of dual pathology in cannabis addicts in treatment
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 8: Cannabis Use and Cognitive Function
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Effects of cannabis on cognition
Effects of cannabis on executive functioning
Cannabis use in adolescents
Additional effect of polysubstance use and psychiatric comorbidity
Gender differences for the effect of cannabis use on cognitive functions
Treatment
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 9: Cannabis, Migration, and Psychosis Onset
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis and psychosis
Migration and psychosis
Migration, cannabis use, and psychosis onset
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 10: The Global Epidemiology and Disease Burden of Cannabis Use and Dependence
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Details of the burden of disease study methods
Comparative risk assessment (CRA): cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia
Prevalence of cannabis dependence
Burden of cannabis dependence
Additional burden attributable to cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia
What are the implications of these findings?
Limitations
Conclusion
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 11: International Aspects of Cannabis Use and Misuse: the Australian Perspective
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
A brief history of cannabis law in Australia
Effects of cannabis use on Australian communities
Strategies for reducing misuse
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 12: International Aspects of Cannabis Use and Misuse: Egypt
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction and historical perspectives
Current status of cannabis use in Egypt
Source of cannabis
Prevalence of factors associated with, and affecting, cannabis abuse
Cannabis abuse in selected population groups
Gender and demographic differences in cannabis abuse
Initiation of drug/cannabis abuse
Cigarette smoking and cannabis
Social and economic factors
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 13: Cannabis Body Packing: A Caribbean Perspective
Abstract
List of abbreviation
Introduction
Body packing as a means of smuggling
Demographics of the drug trade
Demographics of the body packer
Legal considerations
Clinical considerations: symptomatic patients
Ethical considerations
Security considerations
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e1: Tetrahydrocannabinol Concentration and Genetic Characterization of Cannabis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabinoids biosynthesis
Cannabis genome
Genetic markers for forensic identification
Applications of genotyping
Mini-dictionary
Part II: Personal, Social and Community Aspects of Cannabis use
Chapter 14: Gender Differences in Cannabis Use Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Prevalence of cannabis use and CUD
Clinical features of CUD
Treatment services
Treatment effectiveness
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 15: The Role of Age in the Onset and Further Development of Cannabis Use Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
High-risk age periods for CU and CUD incidence
Young age at CU onset and its association with CUD risk
Escalation of CU
How specific is earlier CU as a risk factor for CUD?
The role of early CU in CUD risk in the context of etiological models for substance use disorders
An integrative model of the role of younger age at CU onset in CUD risk
Age at first CU and CUD onset and the course of CUD
Summary and outlook
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 16: Effects of Cannabis Use on Neurocognition in Adolescents and Emerging Adults
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Rising rates of use
The developing brain
Neurocognitive implications of cannabis use
Structural implications of cannabis use
Functional implications of cannabis use
Clinical implications and future directions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 17: Correlates and Consequences of Prenatal Cannabis Exposure (PCE): Identifying and Characterizing Vulnerable Maternal Populations and Determining Outcomes for Exposed Offspring
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Prevalence of PCE and behavioral patterns of cannabis use across pregnancy
PCE detection methods and accuracy of prevalence estimates
Characteristics of women who use cannabis during pregnancy
The effects of PCE on offspring
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 18: Cannabis and Clubbing: Relevance of Cannabis and Polydrug Use in the Clubbing Culture Today
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Drug use in the general population
Rates of multiple substance use, including cannabis
Problems associated with polydrug use
The reasons for cannabis use in the clubbing community
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 19: Cannabis and Sexual Behavior
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Drugs and sexual behavior
Cannabis and sexual behavior
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 20: Friendships and Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
The nature of peer influence
How do friends influence marijuana use?
American court responses to shared use
Future directions of research and conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 21: Students’ Knowledge of Cannabis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis-related knowledge, attitude, and risk perception in the context of recreational use
Cannabis-related knowledge in the context of substance use prevention programs
Cannabis-related knowledge and attitudes in the context of medical use of cannabis
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 22: Childhood Trauma and Cannabis: Risk Factors in Severe Mental Disorders?
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Childhood trauma and mental disorders
Cannabis and mental disorders
Are people who experience childhood trauma more prone to illicit drug use, including cannabis, later in life?
What is the link between a history of childhood trauma, cannabis use, and severe mental disorders?
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 23: Parent’s Influence on Children’s Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Parental influence on adolescent cannabis use
Recency of parents’ cannabis use and children’s initiation
Parental warmth and monitoring (knowledge of child’s actions and whereabouts)
Parental warmth and parenting style: some conceptual overlap
Parental communication and children’s substance use
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 24: Cannabis Users and Premorbid Intellectual Quotient
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis and cognition: approaching the “pre” problem
Longitudinal studies on premorbid IQ: which “pre” predicts what “post”
Cannabis and premorbid IQ: what’s the real risk?
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 25: Cannabis and Traffic Accidents
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Epidemiology of driving under the influence of cannabis
Cannabis detection and traffic
Legislation
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e2: Cannabis Use in Youth Subcultures
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Hip-hop
Jam band
Rave culture and electronic dance music
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Part III: Cannabis, Behavior, Psychopathology and Neuropathology
Chapter 26: Drug-Related Pictures, Attentional Bias, and Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Methods used in addiction research
Cannabis picture presentations: behavioral, ERP, and fMRI findings
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 27: Cannabis Use and First-Episode Psychosis Patients (FEP)
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis use as a risk factor for psychosis
Influence of cannabis use on clinical and functional outcomes, and the role of depressive symptoms in FEP
Impact of cannabis use on cognitive functioning in FEP
Treatment for FEP cannabis users
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 28: Cannabis, Associative Memory, fMRI, and the Implicit Association Test
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Overview of associative memory
Neuroscience of dual systems and associative memory processes in habit formation
Linking associative effects to cannabis-related neural substrates
Associative memory assessments, the implicit association test, and cannabis use
Imaging the implicit association test
Imaging the marijuana-IAT
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 29: Stress Response in Cannabis Users and Psychosis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Stress and mental disorders
Stress study, induction, and evaluation
Dopamine response to psychosocial stress in chronic cannabis users
Stress-induced dopamine release in psychosis
Endocannabinoid system: a possible link between stress, continuous cannabis use, and psychosis
Cannabis use, endocannabinoid system, and psychosis
Endocannabinoid system, stress regulation, and psychosis risk
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 30: Motivation in Chronic Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Motivation: achievement and self-report
Motivation: laboratory measures
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 31: Cannabis Use and Its Association to Mental Illness: A Focus on Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Abstract
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
Cooccurrence of cannabis use and mental illness
Cannabis and mood disorders
Cannabis and anxiety disorders
Summary
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 32: Cannabis Use and Well-Being
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis and positive well-being
Motivations for cannabis use
Cannabis and ill-being
Cannabis and depression
Cannabis and anxiety
Confounding factors
Dose–response theory
Self-medication theory
Cannabis use for therapeutic purposes
Limitations and future directions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 33: Craving and Cannabis: A Potential Paradox
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Function of craving in drug abuse
Theoretical etiology
Craving and cue-reactivity
Cue-reactivity paradigm
Theoretical issues with cannabis craving
Cue-reactivity studies with cannabis
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 34: Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Catalepsy-Like Immobilization
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Involvement of the CB1 receptor in THC-induced catalepsy-like immobilization
Involvement of the nucleus accumbens in THC-induced catalepsy-like immobilization
Involvement of the serotonergic neuronal system in THC-induced catalepsy-like immobilization
Involvement of the glutamatergic neuronal system in THC-induced catalepsy-like immobilization
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 35: The Interactive Nature of Cannabis and Schizophrenia Risk Genes
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Schizophrenia
Gene-environment interactions in schizophrenia
Cannabis and schizophrenia
Studies examining genetic vulnerability to cannabis-induced psychosis
Major candidates for gene–cannabis interactions in schizophrenia
Do genes also modulate the effects of other phytocannabinoids like CBD?
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 36: Neuroimaging Findings in Adolescent Cannabis Use and Early Phase Psychosis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
What does diffusion tensor imaging tell us?
What does magnetic resonance spectroscopy tell us?
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 37: Cannabis Smoking in Adult Schizophrenia: A Cognitive and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Perspective
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Cognition in schizophrenia
Cannabis and psychosis outcomes
The cognitive effects of cannabis in nonpsychosis individuals
Cognitive performance in cannabis-using patients with schizophrenia
Schizophrenia, cannabis, and cognition: the functional imaging studies
Explanatory models
Study limitations
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 38: The Long-Lasting Effects of Cannabis Use on Movement and Brain Regions that Control Movement
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Acute effects of cannabis on movement
Changes in movement following long-term cannabis use
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 39: Assessment of Cannabis Acute Effects on Driving Skills: Laboratory, Simulator, and On-Road Studies
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Driving ability after acute cannabis exposure
Detection of drivers under the influence of cannabis (DUIC)
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 40: Chronic Cannabis Use and Axonal Fiber Connectivity
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Mounting evidence for dysconnectivity in cannabis users
An investigation of axonal fiber connectivity in long-term heavy cannabis users
Further evidence
Mechanisms of axonal disturbance
Future directions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 41: Microglial Activation and Cannabis Exposure
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Overview of microglia
Microglial activation process
Endogenous cannabinoid system in microglia
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 42: Cannabis and Psychosis: Correlation, Causality, and Consequences
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Correlation
Causality
Consequences
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 43: Cannabis Use in Bipolar Disorder
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Why do bipolar disorder and cannabis use disorders often cooccur?
The consequences of cannabis use in bipolar disorder
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 44: Cannabis Use in Epilepsy—Risks and Benefits
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Some facts on seizures and epilepsy
Does cannabis use affect seizures and epilepsy?
Is cannabis safe and well tolerated in epilepsy patients?
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 45: Cannabis, Cannabinoids, and Visceral Pain
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Visceral pain
Cannabinoids and visceral pain
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 46: Cannabis and Postoperative Analgesia
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Mechanism of chronic pain
Mechanism of acute postoperative pain
The endocannabinoid system
Clinical trials using cannabinoids to treat acute postoperative pain
Synergism between cannabinoids and opioids
Analgesic requirements in the chronic cannabis user, postoperatively
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e3: Aggressive Behavior and Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Theories and empirical support
Conclusions
Disclaimer
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e4: COMT Genotypes, Cannabis Use, and Psychosis: Gene-Environment Interaction Evidence from Human Populations, and Its Methodological Concerns
Abstract
List of abbreviations
The role of cannabis use as a risk factor for psychosis
The COMT gene molecular variability and the risk for psychosis
Evidences of COMT gene and cannabis use interactions, and the effect on the risk for psychosis
Considerations for the interpretation of the studies on COMT and cannabis use interaction
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e5: Neuroimaging and Genetics of the Acute and Chronic Effects of Cannabis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Acute effects of cannabinoids on brain function
Chronic effects of cannabis use on brain structure and function
Methodological limitations of neuroimaging studies
Some pointers for future studies
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter e6: Gray Matter, Lateral Ventricle Volumes, and Executive Functioning in Cannabis Users with First-Episode Psychosis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis effects on the brain and impact on cognition
Cannabis, psychosis, and the brain: complex mechanisms and premorbid functioning
Ventricular alterations in cannabis users with first-episode psychosis
Brain changes and cognitive functioning in psychotic cannabis users over time
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter e7: Cannabis Use and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Potential Moderators
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and cannabis use comorbidity
Impact of THC and CBD content
Conclusions and future directions
Mini-dictionary
Part IV: Cannabis, Organs, Tissues and Non-cns Aspects
Chapter 47: Chronic Cannabis Abuse and Thyroid Function
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Effect of chronic cannabis use on human thyroid function
Discussion
Mini-dictionary
Conflict of interest
Chapter 48: Cannabis Hyperemesis Syndrome
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Pathogenesis
Diagnosis, complications, and treatment
Mini-dictionary
Conflict of interest
Chapter 49: Cannabis and Cannabinoids and the Effects on Gastrointestinal Function: An Overview
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Localization of ECS components in the gut
Cannabinoids in physiological states
Cannabinoids in pathophysiological states
Cannabis herbal leaf and resin usage in the gastrointestinal tract
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 50: Cardiovascular Effects of Cannabis Usage
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Physiological effects
Cardiovascular consequences of marijuana usage
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 51: Cannabis and Stroke
Abstract
List of abbreviations
The association between cannabis use and stroke
A causal link between cannabis and stroke is plausible
Reversible cerebral cannabis arteriopathy
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 52: Cannabis Smoking and the Lung
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Acute effects of cannabis on airway dynamics
Chronic effects of cannabis on the lung
Relationship to lung cancer
Association with lower respiratory infection (Table 52.5)
Association with pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, and bullous lung disease (Table 52.6)
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 53: Cannabis and Hepatic Injury
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Human studies
Animal studies
Ischemia-reperfusion injury
Carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic damage
Cannabinoids and hemodynamic changes in liver cirrhosis
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 54: Cannabis Allergy: More Than a Bad Trip
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
The allergic reaction
The IgE-mediated reaction
Cannabis allergy
Clinical manifestations
Diagnosis
Treatment
Natural history
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 55: Marijuana and Breastfeeding
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Routes of maternal ingestion
Factors that influence initiation and continuation of breastfeeding
Marijuana use, milk production, and willingness to breastfeed
Levels of neonatal exposure through breastfeeding
Marijuana and sudden infant death syndrome
Short and long-term effects on the neonate
Legal concerns
Conclusions
Chapter 56: Hypocretins/Orexins and Addiction: Role in Cannabis Dependence
Abstract
List of abbreviations
The hypocretin/orexin system
Role of the hypocretin/orexin system in the addictive properties of drugs of abuse
Neurobiological mechanisms of cannabinoid dependence
Interaction between hypocretin/orexin and endocannabinoid systems
Role of hypocretins/orexins in cannabinoid dependence
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 57: Regulatory Role of Cannabinoids for Skin Barrier Functions and Cutaneous Inflammation
Abstract
List of abbreviations
The skin as a barrier organ
The endogenous cannabinoid system in keratinocytes
Allergic contact dermatitis
The endogenous cannabinoid system attenuates contact allergic inflammation
CB1 receptors on keratinocytes downregulate the secretion of proinflammatory chemokines in contact allergic inflammation
Atopic dermatitis associated with impaired barrier functions
CB1 receptors on keratinocytes participate in the regulation of atopic-like inflammation
Therapeutic potential of cannabinoids for the treatment of allergic skin diseases
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e8: Cannabis and Oral Health: Deleterious Effects on Periodontitis and Dental Implants
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Studies
Final considerations
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter e9: Does Cannabis Use Increase the Risk of Developing Cancer in Humans?
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
How were all relevant studies identified?
What were the inclusion/exclusion criteria for eligible studies?
What were the steps in the identification process of eligible studies?
Narrative assessment of eligible studies
Lung cancer
Head and neck cancers
Testicular germ cell tumors
Miscellaneous: critical analysis of Chacko et al. (2006); Bluhm, Daniels, Pollock, and Olshan (2006); Chen et al. (2008)
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e10: Cannabis and the Use of Amphetamine-Like Substances
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Amphetamine-like substances: AMPH, METH, MDMA, and Cathinones
ALS + cannabis
Mini-dictionary
Part V: Pharmacology and Cellular Activities of Cannabinoids and Endocannabinoids
Chapter 58: Cannabinoids and the Cannabinoid Receptors: An Overview
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis and cannabinoids
Cannabinoid receptors: what they are
The cannabinoid receptors: where they are
Cannabinoid receptors: what they do
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 59: Signaling and Regulation of the Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
CB1 Gαi protein coupling and canonical signaling
CB1 constitutive signaling
CB1 G protein coupling promiscuity
CB1 regulation
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 60: Allosteric Modulation of the Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Allosteric modulation of GPCRs
Potential advantages of allosteric modulators for CB1
Allosteric ligands of CB1
Allosteric modulators alter the binding of orthosteric ligands to CB1
Allosteric modulation of CB1 receptor signaling
Allosteric modulation of CB1 receptor regulation
Allosteric agonism
Probe dependence
Elucidation of ORG27569 binding site in CB1
In vivo studies of ORG27569
Proposed allosteric modulators of CB1
CB1 dimerization as a form of allosteric modulation
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 61: Polymorphisms of the CB2 Cannabinoid Receptor
Abstract
List of abbreviations
CB2 cannabinoid receptor: distribution and function
Genetic polymorphisms
Genotyping methods
Types of investigations
The Single nucleotide polymorphism database (dbSNP) and “rs” numbers
CNR2 gene location and structure
Nonsynonymous SNPs in CNR2
Functional consequences of nonsynonymous SNPs in CNR2
CB2 polymorphism genetic association studies
Possible role of CNR2 in personalized medicine?
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 62: Chemistry of Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Tricyclic and bicyclic analogs of tetrahydrocannabinol
Endogenous cannabinoids and synthetic analogs
Indoles
Monocyclic cores
Bicyclic cores
Tricyclic cores
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 63: The Endocannabinoid System as a Target for New Antiseizure Drugs
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Epilepsy—definitions, classifications, and mechanisms
The current treatment of epilepsies
The endocannabinoid system
Cannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system in seizures and epilepsy
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 64: Pharmacological Aspects of Anandamide and 2-Arachidonoyglycerol as Bioactive Lipids
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Overview of the effects of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol
Classical metabolism of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol
Anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglcerol at the center of a network of bioactive lipids
Receptors and targets of anandamide, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, and their derivatives
Tools and consequences of endocannabinoid levels modulation
Concluding remarks
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 65: Pharmacological Aspects of NMDA Receptors, mGluR5, and Endocannabinoids
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Overview of glutamate receptors and the CNS eCB system
Synaptic plasticity and mGluR5
eCBs and NMDARs
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 66: Peripheral CB1 Receptors and Ghrelin in Feeding Regulation: Pharmacological Implications
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction: feeding regulation by peripheral signals
The peripheral endocannabinoid system and feeding regulation
Ghrelin and integrative signals for appetite
Interactions between ghrelin and peripheral CB1 receptors in feeding regulation
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 67: Pharmacological Aspects of Novel Antiobesity Agents Related to Cannabinoids
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Obesity and weight-loss drugs
Endocannabinoid system and obesity
Antiobesity drugs structurally related to rimonabant
Antiobesity agents not related to rimonabant
Conclusions and perspectives
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 68: Cannabinoid Reward and Dependence: Focus on the Main Psychoactive Ingredients of Marijuana in Preclinical Studies
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 69: Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptors and Cannabinoids
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 70: The Protein–Protein Interactions of Cannabinoid Receptor Interacting Protein 1a (CRIP1a) and Cannabinoid 1 Receptor: The Molecular Mechanism Study Through an Integrated Molecular Modeling Approach
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
CRIP1a secondary structure predication
CRIP1a 3D structure prediction
CB1R C-terminus modeling
CRIP1a–CB1R protein–protein docking
Molecular dynamics
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 71: Synthetic Cannabinoids: a Summary of Selected Phenomena With Respect to Behavioral Pharmacology and Abuse Liability
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
CB1 receptor mediated characteristic tetrad effects in laboratory animals following exposure to SCBs
Discriminative stimulus effects of SCBs, relative to THC
Tolerance and cross-tolerance to the effects of SCBs
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e11: Cannabinoid Signaling in Glioma Cells and Therapeutic implications
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Endocannabinoid system in human gliomas
Intracellular mechanisms underlying antiproliferative activity of cannabinoids
Multimodal action of cannabinoids against glial tumors
Therapeutic potential of cannabinoids against human gliomas
Mini-dictionary
Part VI: Effects of Specific Natural and Synthetic Cannabinoids
Chapter 72: The Role of 5-HT1A Receptor, and Nausea and Vomiting Relief by Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabidiolic Acid (CBDA), and Cannabigerol (CBG)
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Nausea and vomiting
Animal models of nausea
Serotonin1A (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT1A) receptors and nausea and vomiting
Phytocannabinoids and nausea and vomiting
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 73: Genetic and Molecular Aspects of Addiction with Tetrahydrocannabinol
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
The role of the dopaminergic system in the development of THC addiction
Molecular mechanisms of addiction
The molecular basis of long-term brain plasticity
Genetic links to dependence
Significance of recent findings of molecular and genetic effects of chronic cannabinoid administration, and prospects of new strategies to treat cannabinoid dependence
The structures and biological activities of THC and its analogs—own considerations
Chapter 74: Effects of ∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Human Breast Cancer
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Interplay between ∆9-THC and cannabinoid receptors in breast cancer cell growth
Interplay between ∆9-THC and estrogen signaling in breast cancer cell growth
Interplay between ∆9-THC and estrogen signaling in breast cancer cell growth: possible involvement of ERβ
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 75: ∆9-THC and COX-2 Signaling
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
PGE2 is a signaling molecule in THC-induced behavioral responses
THC-elevated PGE2 is derived from the COX-2 pathway
COX-2 induction by THC is mediated via the CB1 receptor, and its coupled Gβγ subunits
THC-stimulated COX-2 expression is via activation of NF-κB
THC raises extracellular glutamate through COX-2 derived PGE2
THC exposure-impaired synaptic plasticity and cognitive function are associated with reduced functional glutamate receptor subunits, and dendritic spines
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 76: Cannabinoids and the Addictive Effects of Nicotine
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Simultaneous THC and nicotine use
Lasting effects of THC exposure
Possible avenues to the development of treatments for addiction
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 77: Cannabinoid Regulation of Intraocular Pressure: Human and Animal Studies, Cellular and Molecular Targets
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Glaucoma and intraocular pressure
Current treatment of glaucoma
Cannabinoids and intraocular pressure
Molecular targets for the IOP-lowering effects of cannabinoids
Cellular mechanisms of cannabinoid-induced reduction of IOP
Problems and future directions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 78: Ocular Delivery of Tetrahydrocannabinol
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Therapeutic potential of the cannabinoids in ocular disorders
Ocular delivery of tetrahydrocannabinol
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 79: The Role of γ-Aminobutyric Acid in the Interoceptive Effects of Oral ∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Humans
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Cannabinoid and GABA neuropharmacology and the gap in our understanding of the interactions of these neurotransmitter systems related to the interoceptive effects of cannabis
Drug discrimination as an in vivo method for detecting CNS interactions between neurotransmitter systems
The influence of global CNS elevation of GABA on ∆9-THC discrimination
The influence of GABAB activation on ∆9-THC discrimination
The influence of positive allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors on ∆9-THC discrimination
Summary and future considerations
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 80: The Role of ∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Diabetes Mellitus
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
∆9-THC in oxidative stress in diabetes
∆9-THC in dyslipidemia in diabetes
∆9-THC in the secretion of insulin in diabetes
∆9-THC in food intake and energy homeostasis in diabetes
Immunosuppressive effects of ∆9-THC
Excretion of ∆9THC metabolites in the urine of diabetics
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 81: Cannabidiol: An Overview of its Antipsychotic Properties
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Endocannabinoid system and schizophrenia
CBD as an antipsychotic drug
Side effects of CBD
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 82: Cannabidiol for the Treatment of Epilepsy: An Overview of Possible Mechanisms of Action and Preclinical and Human Studies
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
CBD’s mechanisms of action
Preclinical studies supporting CBD’s anticonvulsant effects
Human studies supporting CBD’s anticonvulsant effects
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 83: Cannabidiol and Neuroprotection: Evidence from Preclinical Studies
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Excitotoxicity and hypoxic-ischemic brain injury
Neurodegenerative disorders
Other models of neurodegeneration
Summary of the mechanisms of action of CBD
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 84: Cannabinoids as Potent Inhibitors of Human CYP1 Enzymes
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Inhibition of CYP1 enzymes by major phytocannabinoids
Mechanism-based inhibition of CYP1 enzymes by major phytocannabinoids
Interactions between major phytocannabinoids and CYP1 enzymes
Significance of CYP1 inhibition by major phytocannabinoids
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 85: The Synthetic Analog of ∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): Nabilone. Pharmacology and Clinical Application
Abstract
Abbreviations
Introduction
Pharmacology
Cognitive and subjective effects
Cannabis use disorder
Analgesia
Motor disorders
Anxiety
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 86: Synthetic Cannabinoids in Dementia
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Background
Mechanisms of action of cannabinoids in dementia
Tauopathies and cannabinoids
Cannabinoids in subcortical dementias and Parkinson disease
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgment
Chapter 87: Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists (Spice) as New Recreational Psychoactive Substances
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Herbal smoking mixtures
First identification of the psychoactive components in “Spice”
Effect of legislation of synthetic cannabinoids
Clinical consequences of synthetic cannabinoids
Drug testing for synthetic cannabinoids
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 88: Accidents and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Blood of Drivers
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Published cases of driving under the influence of synthetic cannabinoids
Clinical presentation of intoxication due to synthetic cannabinoids
Findings among apprehended drivers
Concentrations of synthetic cannabinoids in blood from suspected drivers
Variants of synthetic cannabinoids detected among apprehended drivers
The prevalence of synthetic cannabinoids in traffic accidents
Analytical challenges
Tolerance
Legislation
Discussion and conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e12: Cannabidiol as an Antioxidant
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Conformational studies
Frontier molecular orbitals on antioxidant capacity of cannabidiol
Antioxidant capacity by electron transfer using ionization potential
Antioxidant capacity by hydrogen transfer using bond dissociation energy
Antioxidant mechanisms in biological system, and their applications
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgment
Chapter e13: The Anxiolytic Effects of Cannabidiol (CBD)
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
CBD effects in animal models of anxiety
Anxiolytic effects of CBD in humans
Mechanisms of CBD effects
Pharmacological mechanisms of the anxiolytic effects of CBD
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e14: New Ethological and Morphological Perspectives for the Investigation of Panicolytic-Like Effects of Cannabidiol
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
New ethological models for the study of antipanic-like effects of cannabidiol
Anatomical targets for the antipanic-like effects of cannabidiol
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e15: Spice Use Among United States Military Personnel
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
History
Synthetic cannabinoids or “Spice”
Media coverage of military substance use
Policy
Mini-dictionary
Part VII: Medicinal Cannabis use
Chapter 89: Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoids for Cancer Patients: Multiple Palliative Indications Together With Promising Laboratory Antineoplastic Effects
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting
Anorexia–cachexia syndrome
Pain
Mood disorder and insomnia
Antitumor effects
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 90: The Use of Medical Marijuana in the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Medical marijuana
Mood disorders
Anxiety disorders
Sleep disorders
Psychosis
Substance use disorders
Cognitive disorders and dementia
Conclusions
Chapter 91: Beneficial Effects of Cannabis and Related Compounds on Sleep
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 92: Cannabinoid-Based Medicines for the Treatment of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome
Treatment strategies
A Rationale for the Treatment of GTS with Cannabinoids
Treatment with Cannabis sativa L
Treatment with THC
Adverse effects
Practical aspects for treatment
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgment
Chapter 93: Cannabidiol and Multiple Sclerosis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
CBD pharmacology and mechanisms of action
CBD toxicity and pharmacokinetic
CBD and animal models of MS
CBD and MS: perspectives
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 94: Cannabinoids and Their Effects on Painful Neuropathy
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Neuropathic pain mechanisms
Pathophysiology of neuropathic pain
Pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain
Cannabinoids and neuropathic pain
Multiple sclerosis central painful neuropathy
HIV painful neuropathy
Diabetic distal symmetrical sensorimotor polyneuropathy
Spinal cord injury
Side effects
Future clinical studies
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 95: Cannabis for Basal Ganglia Disorders (Parkinson Disease and Huntington Disease)
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
The endocannabinoid system in Parkinson disease
Effect of cannabinoids in Parkinson disease
6-Hydroxydopamine model of Parkinson disease
1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine model of Parkinson disease
Rotenone model of Parkinson disease
Primate models of Parkinson disease
Cannabinoids and l-dopa-induced dyskinesia
Experimental data
Cannabinoid signaling in Huntington disease
Effect of cannabinoids in Huntington disease
3-Nitropropionic acid-induced striatal damage
Malonate-induced striatal damage
Quinolinic acid-induced striatal damage
Genetic models of Huntington disease
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 96: Medical Cannabis for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Abstract
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis treatment in IBD
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 97: Cannabidiol for the Treatment of Drug Use Disorders
Abstract
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabidiol
CBD versus opiates/opioids
CBD versus stimulants
CBD versus nicotine
CBD versus cannabis
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 98: Cannabinoids and Effects on the Gastrointestinal Tract: A Focus on Motility
Abstract
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
The ECS and gut innervation controlling motility
Cannabinoids and gastrointestinal motility
Potential therapeutic applications of cannabinoids
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 99: Potential Medical Uses of Cannabigerol: A Brief Overview
Abstract
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacology of cannabigerol
Potential medical uses of cannabigerol
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e16: Cannabis Use in Fibromyalgia
Abstract
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabinoids and fibromyalgia
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Part VIII: Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Chapter 100: The Cannabis Abuse Screening Test (CAST) and Its Applications
Abstract
List of abbreviations
The cannabis abuse screening test and applications
What is the cannabis abuse screening test?
Application of the CAST: an Italian experience
The main evidence
Second phase: multivariate multinomial analysis
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 101: Screening of Synthetic Cannabinoids
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Analytical techniques
Analytical challenges
Analysis of plant material and pure substances
Analysis of biological samples
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 102: On-Site Drug Testing for Cannabis
Abstract
List of abbreviations
On-site drug testing for cannabis
Drug detection kits
Matrices
Detection limits
On-site urine testing
On-site oral fluid testing
Use of on-site testing
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 103: Cannabinoids in Oral Fluid: Identification and Interpretation of Analytical Results
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Collection devices, marijuana recovery, and drug stability
Analytical issues
Disposition of cannabinoids in oral fluid
Interpretation of results
Mini-dictionary
Financial disclosures
Chapter 104: Cannabinoids in Exhaled Breath
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Manolis study from 1983
Exhaled breath for drug testing
Particles in breath
Studies on cannabinoids in breath
Sampling of exhaled breath
Analytical aspects
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 105: Barriers to Treatment Seeking for Cannabis Dependence
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Barriers to seeking cannabis treatment
Implications of the barriers to treatment
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary of terms
Chapter 106: Pharmacotherapies for Cannabis Use Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cannabis withdrawal syndrome
Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cannabis use disorders
Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of comorbid disorders in individuals with cannabis use disorders
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 107: Self-Initiated Cannabis Use Cessation in Adolescents and Emerging Adults
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Self-initiated cannabis cessation in adolescents and emerging adults
Theory of triadic influence and cannabis cessation
Intrapersonal predictors
Cultural/attitudinal
Interpersonal predictors
Strategies noted to have been used for self-initiated cessation
Implications for future interventions
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 108: Treating Cannabis-Dependent Adolescents with Family Therapy: The case of Multidimensional Family Therapy
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Do cannabis dependent youth need treatment?
Which treatments are effective in youth with a cannabis use disorder?
Multidimensional family therapy in a nutshell
The effects of multidimensional family therapy
Implementation of MDFT in europe
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 109: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Cannabis Use Disorder
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Cannabis use as a learned behavior
Approaches in CUD
Cognitive-behavioral approach for CUD treatment
CBT methods for CUD
Cognitive behavioral approaches to stages of CUD
Case examples
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 110: The Cannabis Withdrawal Syndrome— Symptoms and Time Course
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Symptoms of cannabis withdrawal in the DSM-5
Variations in time course of withdrawal symptoms
Clinical implications
Conclusions
Mini Dictionary
Chapter 111: School-Based Cannabis Prevention Programs
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Influence of the natural history of cannabis consumption on prevention
Main characteristics of school-based cannabis prevention programs
Best practices in school-based cannabis prevention programs
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 112: The CapOpus Trial for Cannabis Use Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Interventions
Effect of intervention on cannabis consumption
Contact with treatment facilities
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter 113: Treating Cannabis Use Disorders Through Technology-Assisted Interventions: the Telephone and Internet
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Delivering a high-tech cannabis use intervention
Delivering a low-tech cannabis use intervention
Comparing technology-assisted cannabis use interventions
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter 114: Reducing Cannabis Use With a Real-Time Intervention Using Mobile Technology
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Frequent marijuana use among adolescents and young adults
Need for brief treatment in primary care
Momentary and contextual factors related to marijuana use
Ecological momentary assessment and intervention
The momentary self-monitoring and feedback + motivational enhancement therapy (moment) intervention
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e17: Short Instruments to Screen for “Problematic” Cannabis Use in General Population Surveys
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Why and how to estimate the prevalence of “problematic” cannabis use in the general population
Selection of adequate instruments from the literature
Characteristics of selected screening instruments
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Acknowledgments
Chapter e18: Self-report of Cannabis Use
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Methods for self-report
Prevalence data based on self-report
Validity of self-report
Discussion and conclusion
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e19: CANDIS Program: Modular Treatment of Cannabis Use Disorders
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
What is the CANDIS treatment program?
Scientific evaluation
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary
Chapter e20: Engaging Cannabis Users in Treatment
Abstract
List of abbreviations
Introduction
Why is engagement particularly important for cannabis users?
What is unique about cannabis users that may influence treatment engagement?
What can be done to minimize the impact of these challenges associated with cannabis use?
Mini-dictionary
Cannabis Neuropathology Resources and Recommended Reading
Index

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Victor R Preedy