Fundamentals of Chemistry: A Modern Introduction (1966)

Preface1: Introduction 1.1 General and Historical Remarks 1.2 Definitions of Some Chemical Terms 1.3 The Classification of Matter; States of Aggregation Problems2: Gases 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Ideal Gases 2.3 The Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac; Absolute Temperature; V ∞ T, or V = Constant X T 2.4 Boyle's Law; V ∞ 1/F , Or Pv = Constant 2.5 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures; P ∞ Ν; Ρ = Constant X N; PT = P1 + P2 + . . . 2.6 The Pressure of a Gas Confined by a Liquid 2.7 Avogadro's Law; V ∞ N; V = Constant X N 2.8 Graham's Law; U ∞ L/√m; u = Constant/√m 2.9 The Ideal Gas Law; The Mole; Gas Densities; PV = nRT 2.10 Deviations from Ideal Behavior Problems Additional Problems3: Aggregated States of Matter 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Solids; Methods of Investigation 3.3 The Space Lattice; The Unit Cell 3.4 The Tetrahedron; The Octahedron 3.5 Real Crystals; Crystal Habits; Lattice Defects 3.6 Liquids; Glasses 3.7 Viscosity; Fluidity; Surface Tension; Wetting; Capillarity 3.8 Changes of State 3.9 Spontaneous Change; Entropy 3.10 Liquid-Gas Interconversion; Vapor Pressure 3.11 The Vapor Pressure of Water; Humidity 3.12 Critical Constants 3.13 Boiling 3.14 Melting Point; Freezing Point; Warming and Cooling Curves 3.15 The Phase Diagram 3.16 Colloid.; Adsorbents Problems Additional Problems4: Atoms and Molecules 4.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter 4.2 The Law of Definite Proportions 4.3 The Atomic Theory 4.4 The Law of Multiple Proportions 4.5 The Law of Combining Volumes; The Avogadro Hypothesis 4.6 Molecular Weights of Gases 4.7 Atomic Weights from Molecular Weights; The Cannizzaro Method 4.8 Atomic Weights from Specific Heats; The Method of Petit and Dulong 4.9 Molecular Formulas 4.10 Empirical Formulas; Ionic Solids 4.11 More Accurate Atomic Weights 4.12 Mass Spectroscopy 4.13 Inertial and Gravitational Mass Problems Additional Problems5: Chemical Equations and Chemical Arithmetic 5.1 Formulas and Valence 5.2 Nomenclature 5.3 Chemical Equations 5.4 Quantitative Information from Chemical Equations 5.5 Percent Yield Problems Additional Problems6: Thermochemistry; The First Law of Thermodynamics 6.1 Thermochemistry 6.2 Hess's Law 6.3 Bond Dissociation Energy 6.4 The Interconvertibility of Matter and Energy 6.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics Problems Additional Problems7: Chemical Periodicity 7.1 Before Mendeleev 7.2 Mendeleev; Meyer 7.3 The Periodic Law and The Periodic Table 7.4 The Periodicity of Valence 7.5 The Periodicity of Chemical Properties Problems8: Electronic Structures of Atoms 8.1 Quantization of Electricity 8.2 The Positive Ions (Positive Rays) 8.3 The Rutherford-Bohr Nuclear Theory of The Atom 8.4 The Nature of Light 8.5 Spectra of Elements 8.6 Quantization of The Energy of an Electron Associated with Nucleus 8.7 Modification of The Bohr Theory 8.8 Matter Waves Wave (Quantum) Mechanics 8.9 The Wave Equation 8.10 The Oscillating Electron 8.11 The Hydrogen Atom 8.12 Atomic Orbitals; Shells and Subshells 8.13 Energy of an Orbital; Degeneracy; Distribution of Electrons In Atoms 8.14 The Physical Significance of "Psi Square" 8.15 The Sign of a Wave Function 8.16 Representations of The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 8.17 Electron Revolution and Spin 8.18 Paramagnetism 8.19 Atomic Structure and Periodic Properties of Atoms Problems Additional Problems9: Types of Chemical Bonds 9.1 Lewis Symbols 9.2 Ionic Bond 9.3 Energetics of Formation of Ionic Solids; Born-Haber Cycle 9.4 Ionic Crystals; Radius Ratio Rule 9.5 Covalent Bond 9.6 Multiple Bonds 9.7 Multiple Bonding and Size of Atoms 9.8 Comparison of Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds 9.9 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity 9.10 Exceptions To The Octet Rule 9.11 Coordinate Covalent Bond 9.12 Formal Charge and Oxidation Number 9.13 Writing Lewis Structures 9.14 Periodicity of Chemical Bonding and Oxidation Number 9.15 Epilogue Problems Additional Problems10: Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives 10.1 Bonding of Carbon 10.2 Alkane Hydrocarbons 10.3 Isomerism 10.4 Nomenclature of Alkanes 10.5 Alkenes and Alkynes; Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 10.6 Addition Reaction of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 10.7 Cycloalkanes and Cycloalkenes 10.8 Dienes; Benzene and Aromatic Compounds 10.9 Functional Group Derivatives 10.10 Summary Problems Additional Problems11: The Covalent Bond 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Molecular Orbital Method 11.3 Valence Bond Approach 11.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 11.5 Multiply Bonded Organic Molecules 11.6 Hybridization of Atoms with More than an Octet of Electrons 11.7 Relative Energy Levels of The s-p Type of Hybrid Orbital 11.8 Localized Molecular Orbitals 11.9 Properties of Covalent Bonds 11.10 Resonance and Delocalized p Electrons 11.11 Delocalization Or Resonance Energy Problems Additional Problems12: Intermolecular Forces 12.1 Dipole-Dipole Interaction 12.2 Ion-Dipole Attractions 12.3 Hydrogen Bonding 12.4 London Forces 12.5 London Forces and Molecular Shape 12.6 Van Der Waals Radii Problems13: Solutions 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Liquid Solutions 13.3 Saturation: Gases in Liquids 13.4 Saturation: Solids in Liquids Or Liquids in Liquids 13.5 Dependence of Solubility on Temperature and Pressure 13.6 Supersaturation 13.7 Solubility and Molecular Structure 13.8 Detergency 13.9 Solid Solutions 13.10 Measures of Composition for Solutions Vapor Pressures of Solutions 13.11 General Remarks 13.12 Raoult's Law 13.13 Deviations from Raoult's Law 13.14 Activity 13.15 Henry's Law 13.16 Vapor Pressure and Equilibrium 13.17 Deliquescence Colligative Properties of Solutions 13.18 Vapor Pressure Depression 13.19 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 13.20 Osmotic Pressure 13.21 Determination of Molecular Weights Problems Additional Problems14: Chemical Equilibrium 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Equilibrium in Gases 14.3 The Sulfur Dioxide-Sulfur Trioxide Equilibrium 14.4 Change of Κ with Form of Equation 14.5 Combination of Equilibria 14.6 The Equilibrium Condition in Terms of Concentrations 14.7 Principle of Le Châtelier 14.8 Equilibrium and Catalysis 14.9 Heterogeneous Equilibrium 14.10 Equilibrium in Solutions 14.11 The Distribution Law (Or Law of Partition) 14.12 Equilibrium Calculations Problems Additional Problems15: Ionic Solutions 15.1 Electrical Conductance 15.2 Colligative Properties of Solutions of Electrolytes 15.3 Electronic Conduction 15.4 Ionic Conduction 15.5 Solvation of Ions 15.6 Dielectric Constant 15.7 Other Evidence for Ions 15.8 Covalent Electrolytes 15.9 Net Ionic Equations 15.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations by the Ion-Electron Method 15.11 Electrode Processes 15.12 Electrolysis of Fused Salts 15.13 Faraday’s Laws 15.14 Measurement of Conductivity 15.15 Equivalent Conductance 15.16 Change of Equivalent Conductance with Concentration 15.17 Strong Electrolytes 15.18 Conductances of Individual Ions 15.19 Association in Strong Electrolytes 15.20 Weak Electrolytes 15.21 Degree of Dissociation 15.22 Activities of Electrolytes 15.23 Activity and Interionic Forces Problems Additional Problems16: Galvanic Cells and The Driving Force of Chemical Reactions 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Electricity From a Chemical Reaction 16.3 A Galvanic Cell with One Solution 16.4 Electrical Work 16.5 Measurement of Electromotive Force 16.6 Free Energy and Entropy 16.7 Cells with Liquid Junctions 16.8 Conventional Notation for Cells 16.9 The Hydrogen Half-Cell; Concentration Cells 16.10 The Sign of an Electrode 16.11 The Nernst Equation 16.12 Dependence of E.M.F. on Concentrations 16.13 Determination of Standard E.M.F. and Activity Coefficients 16.14 Half-Cell Potentials 16.15 Calculation of Equilibrium Constants 16.16 Free Energy and Equilibrium 16.17 Predicting The Direction of a Reaction 16.18 Oxidation and Reduction Potentials 16.19 Decomposition Potential; Overvoltage and Polarization 16.20 Selection of Electrode Process 16.21 The Dry Cell and The Storage Cell 16.22 Corrosion Problems Additional Problems17: Acids and Bases 17.1 Nomenclature of Oxyacids and Their Anions 17.2 Early Definitions 17.3 Brönsted-Lowry Concept of Acid-Base Reactions 17.4 Amphoterism; Autoprotolysis (Self-Ionization) 17.5 Types of Protolytic Reaction 17.6 Protolysis in Nonaqueous Media 17.7 Lewis Acid-Base Concept 17.8 Examples of Lewis Acids 17.9 Mechanism of Proton Transfer 17.10 Energetics of Acid Dissociation 17.11 Industrial Applications of Acid-Base Reactions Problems Additional Problems18: Hydrides and Oxides; Structure and Basicity 18.1 Reactivity of Hydrides 18.2 The Periodicity of Properties of The Oxides 18.3 Structure of Oxyanions; p-dπ Bondin 18.4 Relationship of Structure To Acidity and Basicity 18.5 Charge Dispersal and Basicity 18.6 Effect of Anionic Charge 18.7 s Character and Basicity 18.8 Inductive Effect and Basicity 18.9 Preparation of Acids Problems19: Calculations of Ionic Equilibrium Acid-Base Equilibria 19.1 The Ionization of Water 19.2 pH and pOH 19.3 Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions 19.4 Ionization of Weak Acids 19.5 Ionization of Weak Bases 19.6 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 19.7 Charged Acids and Bases 19.8 Polyprotic Acids and Bases 19.9 Weak Acid (Or Base) in The Presence of Strong Acid (Or Base) 19.10 Buffer Solutions 19.11 Indicators Slightly Soluble Salts and Complex Ions 19.12 Solubility Products 19.13 Effect of Ph on Solubility 19.14 Complex Ions 19.15 Effect of Complex-Ion Formation on Solubility Calculations Using Activities 19.16 Activity Coefficients 19.17 Ionic Strength 19.18 Calculation of Activity Coefficients 19.19 Application of Activity Coefficients to Equilibrium Calculations Problems Additional Problems20: Chemistry of the Common Cations and Anions: Background for Qualitative Inorganic Analysis 20.1 Solubility of Salts 20.2 Summary of Solubilities of Inorganic Salts 20.3 Color 20.4 Washing Precipitates; Peptization 20.5 Qualitative Cation Analysis 20.6 Chemistry of the Cations 20.7 Qualitative Analysis of Anions Problems Additional Problems21: Quantitative Analysis 21.1 Gravimetric Analysis 21.2 Volumetric Analysis; Titrations and Normality 21.3 Titration Curves 21.4 Calculation of Titration Curves 21.5 Combined Volumetric and Gravimetric Analysis 21.6 Precision and Accuracy Problems Additional Problems22: Modern Approaches To Analytical Chemistry: Chromatography and Spectrometry 22.1 General 22.2 Criteria of Purity and Methods of Purification 22.3 Chromatographic Methods 22.4 Solid-Liquid Adsorption Chromatography 22.5 Liquid-Liquid Partition Chromatography 22.6 Gas Chromatography 22.7 Ion-Exchange Chromatography 22.8 Electrochromatography 22.9 Spectrometric Methods 22.10 an Example of Absorption Spectrometry: The Infrared Spectrum Problems23: Chemical Kinetics 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Conditions Affecting Reaction Rates 23.3 Theory of Reaction Rates 23.4 Mechanism of Reaction from Rate Equation 23.5 Molecularity of a Reaction 23.6 Catalysis 23.7 Half-Life for First Order Reactions 23.8 Chain Mechanism Problems Additional Problems24: Molecular Geometry and Bonding; Symmetry 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Principal Factors Determining Molecular Shape 24.3 Principal Effect of a Lone Pair 24.4 Molecules Whose Central Atoms Use Unhybridized p Orbitals 24.5 Shapes of Multiple-Bonded Molecules 24.6 Secondary Effects; Modifications in Bond Angles 24.7 Deviated Bond Angles and Hybridization 24.8 Molecular Shape and Dipole Moments 24.9 Molecular Symmetry 24.10 Stereoisomerism Problems Additional Problems25: Transition Metal Complexes 25.1 Complex Formation 25.2 Coordination Number or Ligancy 25.3 Werner's Coordination Theory 25.4 Nomenclature 25.5 Coordination Number and Shape Bonding in Transition Metal Complexes 25.6 Valence Bond Theory 25.7 Crystal Field Theory 25.8 Geometrical Isomerism Problems Additional Problems26: Reactions of Covalent Bonds 26.1 Decomposition 26.2 Displacement or Substitution Reactions 26.3 Nucleophilic Displacement on a δ-Bonded Atom 26.4 Nucleophilic Displacement on a δ-Bonded Carbon Atom 26.5 Nucleophilic Displacement on Atoms Able to Acquire More than an Octet of Electrons 26.6 Nucleophilic Displacement on π-Bonded Atoms 26.7 Electrophilic Displacement on δ-Bonded Atoms 26.8 Electrophilic Displacement on π-Bonded Atoms 26.9 Free Radical Substitutions 26.10 Rearrangements Problems Additional Problems27: Metals and Metallurgy 27.1 The Properties of Metals 27.2 The Metallic Bond; Early Ideas of the "Electron Gas" 27.3 The Band Theory of Metals 27.4 Metallic Properties in Terms of the Band Theory 27.5 Insulators and Semiconductors 27.6 Metallic Valence 27.7 Periodicity of Heats of Fusion and Vaporization of Metals and Nonmetals 27.8 Periodicity of Electrical and Thermal Conductivities of Metals and Nonmetals 27.9 Allotropy and Metallic Character Metallurgical Processes 27.10 Sources of Metals: Thermodynamic Considerations 27.11 The Winning of Metals from Ores: General Considerations 27.12 Preliminary Physical Treatment 27.13 Physical Concentration 27.14 Chemical Leaching 27.15 Roasting: Thermodynamic Considerations 27.16 Reduction 27.17 Electrometallurgy 27.18 Refining: Electrolytic Method 27.19 Refining: Nonelectrolytic Methods Problems Additional Problems28: Nuclear Chemistry 28.1 Radioactivity 28.2 Nuclear Energy 28.3 The Stability of Nuclei 28.4 Nuclear Reactions 28.5 Rate of Radioactive Decay Processes 28.6 Radiochemistry 28.7 Units for Reference Problems Additional Problems29: Polymers Background and Definitions The Decomposition of Natural High Polymers; Monomeric Units (Mers) The Production of Synthetic High Polymers; C-Polymerization A-Polymerization The Molecular Weight of Macromolecules The Orientation of Monomeric Units in Macromolecules Crystallinity of Polymers Properties of Polymers Biochemicals ProblemsAppendix I: Definitions and Review of Physical ConceptsAppendix II: Review of some Mathematical OperationsAppendix III: Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen AtomAppendix IV: Fundamental ConstantsAppendix V: Vapor Pressure of WaterIndex