Fundamental Neuroscience

Preface to the Third Edition

About The Editors

Contributors

I: NEUROSCIENCE

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Neuroscience

A BRIEF HISTORY OF NEUROSCIENCE

THE TERMINOLOGY OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS IS HIERARCHICAL, DISTRIBUTED, DESCRIPTIVE, AND HISTORICALLY BASED

NEURONS AND GLIA ARE CELLULAR BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE OPERATIVE PROCESSES OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS ARE ALSO HIERARCHICAL

CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN

ORGANIZATION OF THIS TEXT

THIS BOOK IS INTENDED FOR A BROAD RANGE OF SCHOLARS OF THE NEUROSCIENCES

CLINICAL ISSUES IN THE NEUROSCIENCES

THE SPIRIT OF EXPLORATION CONTINUES

THE GENOMIC INVENTORY IS A GIANT STEP FORWARD

NEUROSCIENCE TODAY: A COMMUNAL ENDEAVOR

THE CREATION OF KNOWLEDGE

RESPONSIBLE CONDUCT

SUMMARY

Chapter 2: Basic Plan of the Nervous System

INTRODUCTION

EVOLUTION HIGHLIGHTS: GENERAL ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES

DEVELOPMENT REVEALS BASIC VERTEBRATE PARTS

THE BASIC PLAN OF NERVOUS SYSTEM CONNECTIVITY

OVERVIEW OF THE ADULT MAMMALIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

II: CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR NEUROSCIENCE

Chapter 3: Cellular Components of Nervous Tissue

NEURONS

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT NEURONAL TYPES

NEUROGLIA

CEREBRAL VASCULATURE

Chapter 4: Subcellular Organization of the Nervous System: Organelles and Their Functions

AXONS AND DENDRITES: UNIQUE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF NEURONS

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN NERVOUS TISSUE

CYTOSKELETONS OF NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS

MOLECULAR MOTORS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

BUILDING AND MAINTAINING NERVOUS SYSTEM CELLS

Chapter 5: Electrotonic Properties of Axons and Dendrites

TOWARD A THEORY OF NEURONAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

BASIC TOOLS: CABLE THEORY AND COMPARTMENTAL MODELS

SPREAD OF STEADY-STATE SIGNALS

SPREAD OF TRANSIENT SIGNALS

ELECTROTONIC PROPERTIES UNDERLYING PROPAGATION IN AXONS

ELECTROTONIC SPREAD IN DENDRITES

DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF PASSIVE ELECTROTONIC STRUCTURE

RELATING PASSIVE TO ACTIVE POTENTIALS

Chapter 6: Membrane Potential and Action Potential

MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

ACTION POTENTIAL

Chapter 7: Neurotransmitters

SEVERAL MODES OF NEURONAL COMMUNICATION EXIST

CHEMICAL TRANSMISSION

CLASSICAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS

NONCLASSICAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS

PEPTIDE TRANSMITTERS

UNCONVENTIONAL TRANSMITTERS

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION IN PERSPECTIVE

Chapter 8: Release of Neurotransmitters

TRANSMITTER RELEASE IS QUANTAL

EXCITATION–SECRETION COUPLING

MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF THE NERVE TERMINAL

QUANTAL ANALYSIS: PROBING SYNAPTIC PHYSIOLOGY

SHORT-TERM SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

Chapter 9: Neurotransmitter Receptors

IONOTROPIC RECEPTORS

G-PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTORS

Chapter 10: Intracellular Signaling

SIGNALING THROUGH G-PROTEIN-LINKED RECEPTORS

MODULATION OF NEURONAL FUNCTION BY PROTEIN KINASES AND PHOSPHATASES

INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING AFFECTS NUCLEAR GENE EXPRESSION

Chapter 11: Postsynaptic Potentials and Synaptic Integration

IONOTROPIC RECEPTORS: MEDIATORS OF FAST EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS

METABOTROPIC RECEPTORS: MEDIATORS OF SLOW SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS

INTEGRATION OF SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS

Chapter 12: Complex Information Processing in Dendrites

STRATEGIES FOR STUDYING COMPLEX DENDRITES

BUILDING PRINCIPLES STEP BY STEP

AN AXON PLACES CONSTRAINTS ON DENDRITIC PROCESSING

DENDRODENDRITIC INTERACTIONS BETWEEN AXONAL CELLS

PASSIVE DENDRITIC TREES CAN PERFORM COMPLEX COMPUTATIONS

SEPARATION OF DENDRITIC FIELDS ENHANCES COMPLEX INFORMATION PROCESSING

DISTAL DENDRITES CAN BE CLOSELY LINKED TO AXONAL OUTPUT

DEPOLARIZING AND HYPERPOLARIZING DENDRITIC CONDUCTANCES INTERACT DYNAMICALLY

THE AXON HILLOCK-INITIAL SEGMENT ENCODES GLOBAL OUTPUT

MULTIPLE IMPULSE INITIATION SITES ARE UNDER DYNAMIC CONTROL

RETROGRADE IMPULSE SPREAD INTO DENDRITES CAN HAVE MANY FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLES OF HOW VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS ENHANCE DENDRITIC INFORMATION PROCESSING

DENDRITIC SPINES ARE MULTIFUNCTIONAL MICROINTEGRATIVE UNITS

SUMMARY: THE DENDRITIC TREE AS A COMPLEX INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM

Chapter 13: Brain Energy Metabolism

ENERGY METABOLISM OF THE BRAIN AS A WHOLE ORGAN

TIGHT COUPLING OF NEURONAL ACTIVITY, BLOOD FLOW, AND ENERGY METABOLISM

ENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-CONSUMING PROCESSES IN THE BRAIN

BRAIN ENERGY METABOLISM AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL

GLUTAMATE AND NITROGEN METABOLISM: A COORDINATED SHUTTLE BETWEEN ASTROCYTES AND NEURONS

THE ASTROCYTE-NEURON METABOLIC UNIT

III: NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 14: Neural Induction and Pattern Formation

NEURAL INDUCTION

EARLY NEURAL PATTERNING

REGIONALIZATION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 15: Cellular Determination

ORIGINS AND GENERATION OF NEURONAL PROGENITORS

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL COORDINATES OF NEURONAL SPECIFICATION

THE PRONEURAL AND NEUROGENIC GENES

ASYMMETRIC CELL DIVISION AND CELL FATE

CENTRAL NEURONS AND GLIA

SENSORY NEURONS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE RETINA: A COLLABORATION OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC CUES

COMBINATORIAL CODING IN MOTOR NEURONS DETERMINATION

CELLS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 16: Neurogenesis and Migration

INTRODUCTION

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CELL MIGRATION IN THE CNS

Chapter 17: Growth Cones and Axon Pathfinding

GROWTH CONES ARE ACTIVELY GUIDED

GUIDANCE CUES FOR DEVELOPING AXONS

GUIDANCE CUES AND THE CONTROL OF CYTOSKELETAL DYNAMICS

GUIDANCE AT THE MIDLINE: CHANGING RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE CUES

Chapter 18: Target Selection, Topographic Maps, and Synapse Formation

TARGET SELECTION

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE FORMATION IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Chapter 19: Programmed Cell Death and Neurotrophic Factors

CELL DEATH AND THE NEUROTROPHIC HYPOTHESIS

THE ORIGINS OF PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH AND ITS WIDESPREAD OCCURRENCE IN THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF NEURONAL PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH

MODES OF CELL DEATH IN DEVELOPING NEURONS

THE MODE OF NEURONAL CELL DEATH REFLECTS THE ACTIVATION OF DISTINCT BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS

NERVE GROWTH FACTOR: THE PROTOTYPE TARGET-DERIVED NEURONAL SURVIVAL FACTOR

THE NEUROTROPHIN FAMILY

NEUROTROPHIN RECEPTORS

SECRETION AND AXONAL TRANSPORT OF NEUROTROPHINS AND PRO-NEUROTROPHINS

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION THROUGH TRK RECEPTORS

CYTOKINES AND GROWTH FACTORS HAVE MULTIPLE ACTIVITIES

PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH IS REGULATED BY INTERACTIONS WITH TARGETS, AFFERENTS, AND NONNEURONAL CELLS

THE ROLE OF PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH IN NEUROPATHOLOGY

Chapter 20: Synapse Elimination

OVERVIEW

THE PURPOSE OF SYNAPSE ELIMINATION

A STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF SYNAPSE ELIMINATION AT THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

A ROLE FOR INTERAXONAL COMPETITION AND ACTIVITY

IS SYNAPSE ELIMINATION STRICTLY A DEVELOPMENTAL PHENOMENON?

SUMMARY

Chapter 21: Dendritic Development

DYNAMICS OF DENDRITIC ARBOR DEVELOPMENT

GENETIC CONTROL OF DENDRITE DEVELOPMENT IN DROSOPHILA

EXTRACELLULAR REGULATION OF DENDRITIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE MAMMALIAN BRAIN

EFFECT OF EXPERIENCE ON DENDRITIC DEVELOPMENT

MECHANISMS THAT MEDIATE ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT DENDRITIC GROWTH

CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

CONCLUSION

Chapter 22: Early Experience and Sensitive Periods

BIRDSONG: LEARNED BY EXPERIENCE

SOUND LOCALIZATION: CALIBRATED BY EARLY EXPERIENCE IN THE OWL

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENTAL LEARNING

IV: SENSORY SYSTEMS

Chapter 23: Fundamentals of Sensory Systems

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

RECEPTORS

PERIPHERAL ORGANIZATION AND PROCESSING

CENTRAL PATHWAYS AND PROCESSING

SENSORY CORTEX

SUMMARY

Chapter 24: Chemical Senses: Taste and Olfaction

TASTE

OLFACTION

PHEROMONE DETECTION

Chapter 25: Somatosensory System

PERIPHERAL MECHANISMS OF SOMATIC SENSATION

NOCICEPTION, THERMORECEPTION, AND ITCH

CNS COMPONENTS OF SOMATIC SENSATION

THALAMIC MECHANISMS OF SOMATIC SENSATION

THE PATH FROM NOCICEPTION TO PAIN

THE TRIGEMINAL SYSTEM (Fig. 25.16)

CORTICAL REPRESENTATION OF TOUCH

Chapter 26: Audition

EXTERNAL AND MIDDLE EAR

THE COCHLEA

THE AUDITORY NERVE

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Chapter 27: Vision

OVERVIEW

THE EYE AND THE RETINA

P and M Pathways Have Different Response Properties

M Cells Are Highly Sensitive to Contrast

THE RETINOGENICULOCORTICAL PATHWAY

V: MOTOR SYSTEMS

Chapter 28: Fundamentals of Motor Systems

BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE MOTOR SYSTEM

MOTOR PROGRAMS COORDINATE BASIC MOTOR PATTERNS

ROLES OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE CONTROL OF MOVEMENT

CONCLUSION

Chapter 29: The Spinal and Peripheral Motor System

LOCOMOTION IS A CYCLE

CONNECTING THE SPINAL CORD TO THE PERIPHERY

SPINAL INTERNEURON NETWORKS

DESCENDING CONTROL OF SPINAL CIRCUITS

SENSORY MODULATION

Chapter 30: Descending Control of Movement

THE MEDIAL POSTURAL SYSTEM

THE LATERAL VOLUNTARY SYSTEM

SUMMARY

Chapter 31: The Basal Ganglia

BASAL GANGLIA ANATOMY

GPi Is the Primary Basal Ganglia Output for Limb Movements

SIGNALING IN BASAL GANGLIA

THE EFFECT OF BASAL GANGLIA DAMAGE ON MOVEMENT

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF BASAL GANGLIA OPERATION FOR MOTOR CONTROL

BASAL GANGLIA PARTICIPATION IN NONMOTOR FUNCTIONS

Chapter 32: Cerebellum

ANATOMY AND PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE CEREBELLUM

ASSESSING CEREBELLAR FUNCTION

A Cerebellar Role in Rehabilitation? Functional Recovery through Relearning after Damage of Other Parts of the Nervous System

Chapter 33: Eye Movements

EYE MOVEMENTS ARE USED TO STABILIZE GAZE OR TO SHIFT GAZE

THE MECHANICS OF MOVING THE EYES

THE FUNDAMENTAL CIRCUITS FOR STABILIZING GAZE

THE COMMANDS FOR SHIFTING GAZE ARE FORMED IN THE BRAIN STEM

GAZE SHIFTS ARE CONTROLLED BY THE MIDBRAIN AND FOREBRAIN

THE CONTROL OF GAZE SHIFTS INVOLVES HIGHER-ORDER PROCESSES

THE CONTROL OF EYE MOVEMENTS CHANGES OVER TIME

CONCLUSIONS

VI: REGULATORY SYSTEMS

Chapter 34: The Hypothalamus: An Overview of Regulatory Systems

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

HYPOTHALAMIC CYTOARCHITECTURE

FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS

EFFECTOR SYSTEMS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS ARE HORMONAL AND SYNAPTIC

Chapter 35: Central Control of Autonomic Functions: Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System

SYMPATHETIC DIVISION: ORGANIZED TO MOBILIZE THE BODY FOR ACTIVITY

PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION: ORGANIZED FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

THE ENTERIC DIVISION OF THE ANS: THE NERVE NET FOUND IN THE WALLS OF VISCERAL ORGANS

ANS PHARMACOLOGY: TRANSMITTER AND RECEPTOR CODING

AUTONOMIC COORDINATION OF HOMEOSTASIS

HIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED ANS CIRCUITS IN THE CNS

PERSPECTIVE: FUTURE OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

SUMMARY AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 36: Neural Regulation of the Cardiovascular System

AN ANATOMICAL FRAMEWORK

A5 Cell Group

A1 Cell Group

ANATOMY AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AUTONOMIC PATHWAYS

NETWORK GENERATORS

SHORT-TERM CONTROL MECHANISMS

REFLEX CONTROL OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

ARTERIAL BARORECEPTORS

PERIPHERAL ARTERIAL CHEMORECEPTORS

CARDIAC RECEPTORS

ABDOMINAL VISCERAL REFLEXES

Chapter 37: Neural Control of Breathing

EARLY NEUROSCIENCE AND THE BRAIN STEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BREATHING

WHERE ARE THE NEURONS GENERATING RESPIRATORY PATTERN?

DISCHARGE PATTERNS OF RESPIRATORY NEURONS

WHERE ARE THE NEURONS THAT GENERATE THE BREATHING RHYTHM?

SENSORY INPUTS AND ALTERED BREATHING

MECHANORECEPTORS IN THE LUNGS ADJUST BREATHING PATTERN AND INITIATE PROTECTIVE REFLEXES

MODULATION AND PLASTICITY OF RESPIRATORY MOTOR OUTPUT

SUPRAPONTINE STRUCTURES AND BREATHING

Chapter 38: Food Intake and Metabolism

CALORIC HOMEOSTASIS

ROLE OF CALORIC HOMEOSTASIS IN CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE

CENTRAL CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE

NEUROPEPTIDES AND THE CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE

Chapter 39: Water Intake and Body Fluids

BODY FLUID PHYSIOLOGY

OSMOTIC HOMEOSTASIS

VOLUME HOMEOSTASIS

Chapter 40: Neuroendocrine Systems

THE HYPOTHALAMUS IS A NEUROENDOCRINE ORGAN

HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING/INHIBITING HORMONES AND THEIR TARGETS

THE HYPOTHALAMIC–ADENOHYPOPHYSIAL NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

THE HYPOTHALAMIC-NEUROHYPOPHYSIAL SYSTEMS

HORMONES AND THE BRAIN

Chapter 41: Circadian Timekeeping

OVERVIEW OF THE MAMMALIAN CIRCADIAN TIMING SYSTEM

THE SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEI ARE THE SITE OF THE PRIMARY CIRCADIAN PACEMAKER IN MAMMALS

A HIERARCHY OF CELL-AUTONOMOUS CIRCADIAN OSCILLATORS

THE MOLECULAR BASIS FOR CIRCADIAN OSCILLATION IS A TRANSCRIPTIONAL FEEDBACK LOOP

CIRCADIAN PHOTORECEPTION

CIRCADIAN OUTPUT MECHANISMS

DIVERSITY OF OUTPUT PATHWAYS LEADING TO PHYSIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS

GENERAL SUMMARY

Chapter 42: Sleep, Dreaming, and Wakefulness

THE TWO STATES OF SLEEP: RAPID EYE MOVEMENT AND NONRAPID EYE MOVEMENT

SLEEP IN THE MODERN ERA OF NEUROSCIENCE

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF BRAIN STEM REGULATORY SYSTEMS

MODELING THE CONTROL OF BEHAVIORAL STATE

SLEEP HAS MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS

Chapter 43: Reward, Motivation, and Addiction

REWARD AND MOTIVATION

ADDICTION

VII: BEHAVIORAL AND COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Chapter 44: Human Brain Evolution

EVOLUTIONARY AND COMPARATIVE PRINCIPLES

EVOLUTION OF PRIMATE BRAINS

WHY BRAIN SIZE IS IMPORTANT

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 45: Cognitive Development and Aging

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND AGING: A LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE

PATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

Chapter 46: Visual Perception of Objects

THE PROBLEM OF OBJECT RECOGNITION

SUBSTRATES FOR OBJECT PERCEPTION AND RECOGNITION: EARLY EVIDENCE FROM BRAIN DAMAGE

VISUAL PATHWAYS FOR OBJECT PROCESSING IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES

NEURONAL PROPERTIES WITHIN THE OBJECT RECOGNITION PATHWAY

FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY OF OBJECT RECOGNITION IN HUMANS

PERCEPTION AND RECOGNITION OF SPECIFIC CLASSES OF OBJECTS

OVERALL SUMMARY

Chapter 47: Spatial Cognition

NEURAL SYSTEMS FOR SPATIAL COGNITION

PARIETAL CORTEX

FRONTAL CORTEX

HIPPOCAMPUS AND ADJACENT CORTEX

SPATIAL COGNITION AND SPATIAL ACTION

Chapter 48: Attention

INTRODUCTION

VARIETIES OF ATTENTION

NEGLECT SYNDROME: A DEFICIT OF SPATIAL ATTENTION

SINGLE UNIT RECORDING STUDIES IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES PROVIDE CONVERGENT EVIDENCE FOR A FRONTO-PARIETAL ATTENTIONAL CONTROL SYSTEM

ATTENTION AFFECTS NEURAL ACTIVITY IN THE HUMAN VISUAL CORTEX IN THE PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF VISUAL STIMULATION

ATTENTION INCREASES SENSITIVITY AND BOOSTS THE CLARITY OF SIGNALS GENERATED BY NEURONS IN PARTS OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM DEVOTED TO PROCESSING INFORMATION ABOUT OBJECTS

ATTENTION MODULATES NEURAL RESPONSES IN THE HUMAN LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEUS

THE VISUAL SEARCH PARADIGM HAS BEEN USED TO STUDY THE ROLE OF ATTENTION IN SELECTING RELEVANT STIMULI FROM WITHIN A CLUTTERED VISUAL ENVIRONMENT

WHERE IS THE COMPUTATIONAL BOTTLENECK AS REVEALED BY SEARCH TASKS?

NEURONAL RECEPTIVE FIELDS ARE A POSSIBLE NEURAL CORRELATE OF LIMITED CAPACITY

COMPETITION CAN BE BIASED BY NONSPATIAL FEEDBACK

FILTERING OF UNWANTED INFORMATION IN HUMANS

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 49: Learning and Memory: Basic Mechanisms

PARADIGMS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO STUDY ASSOCIATIVE AND NONASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

INVERTEBRATE STUDIES: KEY INSIGHTS FROM APLYSIA INTO BASIC MECHANISMS OF LEARNING

VERTEBRATE STUDIES: LONG-TERM POTENTIATION

LONG-TERM DEPRESSION

HOW DOES A CHANGE IN SYNAPTIC STRENGTH STORE A COMPLEX MEMORY?

Chapter 50: Learning and Memory: Brain Systems

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY OF MEMORY SYSTEMS

MAJOR MEMORY SYSTEMS OF THE MAMMALIAN BRAIN

BEHAVIOR SUPPORTED BY MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEMS

CONCLUSION

Chapter 51: Language and Communication

ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

HUMAN LANGUAGE

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 52: The Prefrontal Cortex and Executive Brain Functions

INTRODUCTION

CONTROLLED PROCESSING

ANATOMY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX

EFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX IN HUMANS

NEUROIMAGING STUDIES AND PFC

EFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX IN MONKEYS

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX

PFC Neurons Can Sustain Their Activity

PFC Neural Activity Reflects Task Rules

PFC Neurons Are Flexible

PFC Neurons Encode Rewards

THEORIES OF PREFRONTAL CORTEX FUNCTION

Chapter 53: Consciousness

Index