Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance
Description
Key Features
- The Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance is a unique reference for a growing area of scientific inquiry
- It brings together in one source the research from experts in a variety of fields examining this psychological and sociological phenomenon
- The breadth of topics covered, and the current fascination with this subject area ensure this reference will be of interest to researchers and a lay audience alike
Readership
Undergraduate students, graduate students, researchers, and interested public libraries
Table of Contents
Editor-in-Chief
Associate Editors
List of Contributors
Guide to Using the Encyclopedia
Preface
Foreword
Volume 1
Amputations and Prosthetic Devices
Introduction
Amputation and Body Image
Factors Influencing Body Image Adaptation
Conclusions and Recommendations for Clinical Care
see also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Anorexia Nervosa
Introduction
Body Image Disturbance in Anorexia Nervosa
Comparisons of BID in AN to BID in Other EDs
Mechanisms of BID in AN
Effective Treatment for BID
Conclusions
see also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Anthropological Perspectives on Physical Appearance and Body Image
Introduction
Anthropological Findings in the Study of Human Appearance
Anthropological Study of Body Image
Methodological Innovations
Conclusions
see also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Anthropometry
Introduction
Body Fat
Torso Shape
Symmetry Measures
Facial Anthropometry
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Appearance Discrimination and the Law
Introduction
Legal Landscape of Weight Discrimination: Key Examples
Current Status of Legislation to Prohibit Appearance Discrimination
Potential Legislative Alternatives and Solutions
Does the Public Support Laws to Prohibit Appearance Discrimination?
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Bariatric Surgery for Weight Loss
Defining Obesity
Bariatric Surgery Procedures and Outcomes
Evaluation of Candidates for Bariatric Surgery
Psychosocial Characteristics of Bariatric Surgery Candidates
Additional Preoperative Psychosocial Issues
Postoperative Outcomes
Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Beauty over the Centuries – Female
Introduction
The Historical Method and a Focal Example
The Shift to Image-Based Mass Media
How Consumer Culture Promoted an Ideological Shift
Shaping the Body through Clothing
Mass Media and Leisure
Emphasis on the Physical Self
Girls’ Organizations
The Importance of Eugenics
Controlling the Body from the Inside: Eating and Athletics
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Beauty over the Centuries – Male
Introduction
The Pythagorean View of Beauty
Muscular Ideal
Leanness and Youthfulness
Well Roundedness and Plumpness
Nonphysical Standards of Beauty and the Wen/Wan Dichotomy
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Body Art
Introduction
A Brief History of Body Art
Motivations for Obtaining Body Art
Behavioral and Personality Correlates of Obtaining Body Art
Perceptions of Body Art
Future Directions
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketches
Bodybuilding
Bodybuilding: Definition and a Brief History
The Drive for Muscularity
Muscle Dysmorphia
Three Models of Potential Causes of Muscle Dysmorphia
Anabolic Steroid Use in Bodybuilders
Possible Treatments for Muscle Dysmorphia
Future Research on Body Image and Muscle Dysmorphia in Bodybuilders
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Introduction
Prevalence/Epidemiology
Clinical Features of BDD
BDD in Special Populations
A Patient with BDD: Case Description
Neural Substrates and Cognitive/Emotional Processing
Psychological Correlates
Assessing and Diagnosing BDD
Treatment Approaches
Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Body Height
Introduction
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Body Image among African Americans
Introduction
African American Body Image – The Current Consensus
Exposing the Limits of Racial Framing in Understanding Body Image
Toward Culture and the Explication of Similarity and Difference in Body Image among African Americans
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image among Asian Americans
Introduction
Sociocultural Influences
Interpersonal Influences
Individual Factors
Research Implications
Clinical Recommendations
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Body Image among Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Individuals
Introduction
Sexual Minorities’ Perceptions of Appearance
Variability within Gay and Lesbian Communities
Intersectionality
Bisexual Body Image
Measuring Sexual Orientation
Directions for Future Research
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Body Image among Hispanics/Latinos
The Prevalence of Body Image Concerns
Consequences of a Negative Body Image
Predictors of Positive and Negative Body Image
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Body Image among Older Adults
Introduction: Body Image Concerns and the Ideal Older Body
The Development of a Sense of Self
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image and “Fat Talk”
Introduction
Historical and Theoretical Context for Fat Talk
Proposed Functions of Fat Talk
Empirical Exploration of Fat Talk
Research Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
Concluding Comments
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Image and Gender Roles
Introduction
Body Image Ideals for Girls and Women
Body Image Ideals for Boys and Men
Contemporary Gender Role Norms and the Body
Women’s Bodies and Femininity
Men’s Bodies and Masculinity
Comparing Women and Men
Summary and Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Image and Personality
Introduction
Why Should Personality Predict Body Image?
Associations with Specific Personality Traits
Common Explanatory Mechanisms: Personality Variables as Moderators
Conclusion and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Body Image and Self-Esteem
Introduction
Definitions of Body Image and Self-Esteem
Measurement of Body Image and Self-Esteem
Associations between Self-Esteem and Body Image
Associations with Pubertal Status, Body Size, Ethnicity, Culture, and Sport
Interventions to Improve Body Image via Promotion of Self-Esteem
What We Know about the Links between Body Image and Self-Esteem – Summary of Issues in Program Success
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image and Sexual Functioning
Introduction
Body Image and Sexual Functioning with a Partner
Body Image Based on Breasts and Genitals
Body Image and Sexual Risk Taking
Questions in Need of Answers
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image and Social Class
Introduction
The Body and Social Position
Body Image Dissatisfaction and Social Position
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Image and Sports/Athletics
Introduction
Multiple Body Images and Ideals
Body Image, Disturbed Eating, and Other Disorders among Athletes
The Sport Culture as a Risk Factor
Creating a Body-Healthy Sport Environment
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Image Behaviors
Introduction
Body Checking Behavior
Appearance Fixing
Body Image Avoidance
Treatment of Body Image Behaviors
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Image Change and Prevention
Introduction
Research Support
Additional Research Support
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Body Image Development – Adolescent Boys
Introduction: Nature of Body Image Concerns
Measurement
Type and Prevalence of Problems
Body Image Concerns across Cultures
Biological Factors
Sociocultural Influences
Individual Factors
Further Considerations
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image Development – Adolescent Girls
Introduction
Overview of Body Image in Adolescent Girls
Factors in the Development of Body Dissatisfaction in Adolescent Girls
Longitudinal Research
Conclusions and Future Research Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Body Image Development – Adult Men
Introduction: Male Body Ideals
Rates of Body Dissatisfaction
Antecedents to Body Dissatisfaction
Behavioral Consequences of Body Dissatisfaction
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image Development – Adult Women
Introduction
Social Pressure to Maintain a Youthful Appearance
Age-Related Changes in Body Image
Making Sense of Greater Body Satisfaction in Older Women
Challenges in Interpreting Data on Age Differences in Body Image
Cultural and Ethnic Group Differences
Using What We Know about Body Image in Older Women to Increase Body Satisfaction in Younger Women
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image Development – Boy Children
Introduction: Defining of Body Image
Nature of Body Image Focus for Males
Prevalence of Body Image Concerns among Preadolescent Boys
Level of Body Image Dissatisfaction and Developmental Trends
Factors Associated with Body Image Concerns
Individual and Psychological Factors
Cultural Differences in Body Image
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image Development – Girl Children
Introduction
Development of Body Image
Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Body Image
Effects of Negative Body Image
Conclusions and Future Research
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image
Introduction
The Impact of Verbal Messages
The Impact of Family Members’ Own Attitudes and Behaviors
Family Atmosphere and Functioning
Importance of Family Influences Relative to Other Influences on Body Image
Individual Differences
Limits and Implications
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Body Image in Dance and Aesthetic Sports
Introduction
Body Image and Dance
Body Image and Aesthetic Sports
Possible Explanatory Factors
Conclusions: Unique Nature of These Pursuits
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Body Image in Mood and Psychotic Disorders
Introduction
Body Image and Depression
Body Image in Bipolar Disorder
Body Image in Schizophrenia
Body Image in Delusional Disorder
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Body Image in Non-Western Societies
Introduction
Body and Person in Comparative Perspective
Body Modification
Beauty Industries in a Global Economy
Eating Disorders in Non-Western Nations
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Body Image in Social Contexts
Introduction
Social Aspects of Body Image
The Impact of Body Image on Social Functioning
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image Issues among Individuals with HIV and AIDS
Introduction
Appearance Changes Associated with HIV/AIDS and Psychosocial Impact
Appearance Changes Associated with HIV Treatment and Psychosocial Impact
The Role of Stigma
Initiation and Adherence to Treatment and Body Image
Interventions to Address Body Image Issues
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Image
Introduction
Conceptual Model of Body Image and Peer Influences
Peer Influence
Friends and Cliques
Peer Reputational Popularity and Acceptance
Peer Evaluations: Teasing and Sexual Harassment
Romantic Partners
Sociocultural Contributions to Peer Influence: The Case of the School Context
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Body Weight and Body Image in Adults
Introduction: Body Image and Body Mass Index
Weight Loss and Body Image
Weight Gain and Body Image
Ethnicity, Weight, and Body Image
Protective Factors
Gender, Weight, and Body Image
Binge Eating Disorder and Body Image
Obesity Stigma and Body Image
Gender Differences in Obesity Stigma
Obesity Stigma, Body Image, and Weight-Related Health
Body Image in Underweight Individuals
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Body Weight and Body Image in Children and Adolescents
Introduction
Associations between Weight Status and Body Image
Sequelae
Mechanisms
Interventions
Summary and Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Breast Reconstruction and Breast Reduction Surgeries
Introduction
Breast Reconstruction
Breast Reduction
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Breast Size
Introduction
Evolution of the Breasts: Explanations of Why Women Have Permanent Breasts
Sexual Arousal and Breast Stimulation
The Sexualizing of the Breast for Men
The Breast in Pornography
What Makes Women Beautiful
Population Dynamics and Beauty
Breasts in the Media
The Development of Self and Self-Esteem
The Development of Body Image Dissatisfaction
Objectification and Self-Objectification of the Breast
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Bulimia Nervosa and Binge Eating Disorder
Bulimia Nervosa
Overvaluation of Shape and Weight in Bulimia Nervosa
Body Image Disturbance in Bulimia Nervosa
Binge Eating Disorder
Overvaluation of Shape and Weight in Binge Eating Disorder
Body Image Disturbance in Binge Eating Disorder
Addressing Body Image Disturbance in Treatment
Summary and Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Burn Injuries
Introduction
Epidemiology
Stages of Psychological Adaptation during the Course of Recovery from Burns
Stigmatization and Social Integration after a Burn Injury
Interventions for Negative Body Image and Social Discomfort
Interventions in the Social Environment and Advocacy Groups
Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Cancers
Introduction
Appearance-Changing Effects of Cancer Treatments
Multidimensional Features of Cancer-Related Appearance Changes
Clinical Applications
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Children’s Media Influences
Introduction
Children’s Exposure to the Media
Internalization of Unrealistic Body Ideals and the Link to Media Exposure
Research on Children’s Media
Prevention Efforts
Conclusion and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Clothing and Adornment
Introduction
Clothing and Adornment: Effects on Individuals
Clothing and Adornment: Effects on Interactions
Future Research and Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Cognitive-Behavioral Body Image Therapy
Introduction
Typical Components of BI CBT and Their Goals
Research Designs Typically Used to Study BI CBT
The Impact of BI CBT on the Dimensions of Body Image
The Impact of BI CBT on Psychological Well-Being
Who Benefits Most: Clinical or Nonclinical Populations?
BI CBT for Overweight and Obese Individuals
BI CBT for Body Dysmorphic Disorder
BI CBT for Eating Pathology and Eating Disorders
Effectiveness of BI CBT with Various Levels of Therapist Contact
Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives on Body Image
Introduction
Key Body Image Constructs
Historical and Developmental Influences
Body Image Perceptions and Attitudes
Proximal Events and Processes
Cognitive Behavioral Applications
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Congenital Craniofacial and Maxillofacial Malformations
Introduction
Types of Congenital Craniofacial and Maxillofacial Conditions with the Potential to Affect Body Image
Body Image and Congenital Conditions
Factors Associated (and Not Associated) with Adjustment in Relation to Body Image Issues
Current Developments in Interventions to Address Body Image Issues for People Affected by Congenital Conditions
Future Research, Health-Care, and Societal Agendas
Concluding Remarks
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Cosmetic Surgical and Non-Surgical Procedures for the Face
Introduction
Type-Changing Facial Cosmetic Surgeries
Antiaging Facial Cosmetic Surgeries
Minimally Invasive Facial Cosmetic Procedures
Motivational Factors in the Pursuit of Facial Cosmetic Procedures
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Cosmetic Surgical Procedures for the Body
Introduction
Cosmetic Breast Augmentation
Body Contouring Procedures
Other Body Enhancement Procedures
Psychiatric Disorders and Cosmetic Surgery of the Body
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Cosmetics Use
Introduction
History of Cosmetics Use
Purposes of Cosmetics Use
Efficacy of Cosmetics Use
Cosmetics Use and Facial Attractiveness
Other Perceptions of People Wearing Cosmetics
Individual Differences in Cosmetics Use
Cosmetics Use and Gender
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Dental and Orthodontic Treatments
Introduction
The Normal Development of the Dento-Facial Region
Conditions That Affect the Appearance of the Mouth, Teeth, and Smile
Perceptions and Attributions as a Function of Dento-Facial Appearance
The Role of Dental Treatment with respect to Appearance
Summary and Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Dieting (Chronic)
Introduction and Definitions
Background on Chronic Dieting in Normal-Weight Individuals
Current Perspectives on Chronic Dieting, Body Image, and Weight
Dieting in Men and Minority Populations
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Dolls and Action Figures
Introduction: Toys and Identity Development
Dolls and Action Figures as Embodiments of Sociocultural Body Ideals
The Impact of Exposure to Action Figures and Dolls
Summing Up and Looking Ahead
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Drug Use, Appearance- and Performance-Enhancing
What are Appearance- and Performance-Enhancing Drugs?
Body Image and APED Use
Women and APEDs
Diagnosis and Psychopathology in APED Use
Conclusions and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketches
Endocrine Conditions
Introduction
Osteoporosis
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Thyroid-Associated Ophthalmopathy
Acromegaly
Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome and Hirsutism
Interventions and Clinical Implications
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Evolutionary Perspectives on Physical Appearance
Introduction
Facial Attractiveness
Bodily Attractiveness
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketches
Exercise
Introduction
The Effects of Exercise on Body Image
How Does Exercise Improve Body Image?
Factors That Moderate the Effects of Exercise on Body Image
Can a Single Bout of Exercise Enhance Body Image?
When Exercise Turns Bad – Compulsive Exercise
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Experiential and Somatopsychic Approaches to Body Image Change
Introduction: Defining Body Image
Premise
Relevance to Clients and Clinicians
Touchstones from the Past: Old Frontiers for Exploration
Somatic-Centered Approaches
Empirical Support for Experiential and Somatopsychic Methods
Back to the Future
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Face and Body in Motion
Introduction
Nonverbal Communication in Impression Formation
Nonverbal Communication and Physical Attractiveness
Individual Differences in Nonverbal Expressive Style
Methodologies for Studying Nonverbal Communication Processes
Implications for Research
Implications for Practice
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Face and Hand Transplantation
From Science Fiction to a Reconstructive Option: The Rationale for Face and Hand Transplantation
Ethical, Technical, and Immunological Issues
Identity and Body Image Aspects of Transplantation
Appearance and Body Image Aspects of Facial Transplantation
Cortical Changes
Facial Transplantation and Models of Body Image
Supporting Body Image Reintegration in the Clinical Setting
Outcomes of Facial Transplantation Procedures from 2005
Conclusion: The Future of Facial Transplantation
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Feminist Perspectives on Body Image and Physical Appearance
Introduction
Feminist Theories about the Body
Feminist Research on the Body
Change and Resistance
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Volume 2
Gender Disorder, Transgenderism and Transsexuality
Introduction
Terminology
Description of the Phenomenon
Gender Dysphoria
Gender Role Presentation
Assessment and Treatment
Feminizing and Masculinizing Medical Interventions
Passing or Affirmation of Transgender Identity and Appearance
Sexual Attractiveness, Competence, and Health
Body Image
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Genetics and Human Appearance
Introduction
Assessing Genetic Influences on a Trait
Objective Appearance
Genetic Disorders of Human Appearance
Subjective Perceptions of Appearance
Psychological Disorders
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Genitalia
Introduction
Images of Genitalia in Art and in the Public Forum
What is Normal?
Religious and Cultural Influences to Alter Genitalia
Male Circumcision
Female Circumcision, Female Genital Mutilation, and Female Genital Cutting
Cosmetically Driven Genital Surgery
Medically Recognized Genital Anomalies and Conditions
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Gynecologic Conditions and Body Image
Introduction
Body Image and Puberty
Body Image and Pelvic Pain
Body Image and Sexual Abuse
Body Image and Sexually Transmitted Infections
Body Image and Infertility and Miscarriage
Body Image and Cosmetic Gynecologic Surgery
Body Image and Hysterectomy and Oophorectomy
Body Image and Menopause
Body Image and Gynecologic Precancerous and Cancerous Conditions
Body Image and Pelvic Organ Prolapse and Incontinence
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant-Websites
Biographical Sketches
Hair
Introduction
Hirsutism
Facial Hair
Body Hair Preferences and Challenges to Cultural Norms
Women’s Body Depilation
Men’s Body Depilation
Health Concerns Associated with the Appearance of Body Hair and Its Depilation
Theoretical Considerations
Future Directions in the Research of Facial and Body Hair
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Hair Loss Effects and Surgical/Drug Treatments for the Alopecias
Introduction: Types of Alopecia
Causes of Hair Loss
Psychological Correlates and Consequences of Hair Loss
Cancer Treatment and Hair Loss
Coping with Hair Loss
Medical Treatments for Alopecia
Surgical Procedures for Hair Loss
Psychological Therapies
Cosmetic Measures and Fashion
Areas for Future Research
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Hair Styling and Coloring
Significance of Hair
Hair Color and Its Significance
Hair Length and Its Significance
Various Hair Textures
African Hair Texture and Its Significance
Sampling of Most Popular Styles and Their Significance
Hair as Statement
The Cost of Beauty
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Internalization of Thin-Ideal and Muscular-Ideal
Introduction
Theoretical Models and Research Findings
Measurement of Internalization
Cognitive Dissonance-Based Interventions for Internalization
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketches
Measurement and Stability of Physical Attractiveness Judgments
Introduction
The Measurement Scale
The Nature of the Stimulus
Facial and Body Features Influence on Attractiveness Ratings: Historico-Cultural Effects
Individual Differences and Group Agreement on Attractiveness
Interactional Effects on Attractiveness Judgments
A Comprehensive Psychological Interpretation of Physical Attractiveness
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Measurement of Body Image in Adolescence and Adulthood
Introduction
Overview of Dimensions of Body Image
Methodological Issues: Participant and Sample Variables
Methodological Issues: Design, Procedural, and Analysis Issues
Conclusions and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Measurement of Body Image in Childhood
Introduction
Body Image Assessment of Self
Assessment of Perceptions of Others’ Bodies
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Measurement of Perceptual Body Image
Introduction: Body Image and Body Image Disturbance
Clinical Relevance of Body Size Overestimation
Early Studies Measuring Body Size Estimation
Methodological Issues Assessing Body Size Estimation
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Measurement of Physical Self-Confidence/Competence
Introduction
Why Are Physical Self-Perceptions Important?
Historical Developments in the Measurement of Physical Self-Perceptions: A Brief Overview
Instruments Used to Measure Physical Self-Confidence and Competence: What Does the Evidence Say?
Key Considerations in Selecting an Instrument to Measure Physical Self-Confidence and/or Competence
Concluding Remarks and Future Directions: What Is Next for Physical Self-Perception Measurement?
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Media Influences on Female Body Image
Introduction
Criterion 1: Media Content
Criterion 2: Media Exposure and Body Image
Criterion 3: Media Exposure and the Prediction of Body Image
Criterion 4: Experimental Evidence – Laboratory Research
Criterion 5: Media Literacy and Prevention
Criterion 6: Effects of Perceived or Subjective Media Pressure
Criterion 7: The When and How of Media Influence – Mediating and Moderating Processes
Summary and Integration of Evidence for Media as a Causal Risk Factor
Conclusions and Implications
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Media Influences on Male Body Image
Introduction
Media Representations of the Male Body
Media Influences on Male Body Image across the Life Span
Factors That Influence the Extent to which Media Affects Male Body Image
Theoretical Explanations for the Influence of Media on Male Body Image
Strategies to Address Media Influence on Male Body Image
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Medically Induced (Iatrogenic) Adverse Changes in Appearance
Introduction
Skin and Hair Changes
Body Form Changes
Body Attachments
Facial Surgery for Head and Neck Cancer
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Muscularity and Body Image
Introduction
Psychosocial Correlates
Behavioral Correlates
Muscularity in the Media
Clinical Outcomes
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Neuroscientific Perspectives on Body Image
Introduction
An Overview of Important Structural and Functional Elements of the Brain
Defining Terms
The Role of the Brain in Normal Body Image
The Role of the Brain in Disorders of Body Image
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Objectification Theory, Self-Objectification, and Body Image
Objectification Theory
Empirical Support for the Objectification Theory Framework
Measurement of Self-Objectification
Intersectionality in Objectification Theory
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Occupational and Economic Consequences of Physical Attractiveness
Introduction
Occupational Outcomes
Explaining Occupational Biases
Can Beauty Backfire?
Occupational Outcomes across Cultures and Time
Limitations and Conclusion
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Physical Appearance and Stigma
Introduction
Origins of Stigma
Nature and Extent of Weight Stigmatization
Consequences of Weight Stigma for Adults and Youth
Stigma Induced by Other Aspects of Physical Appearance
Remedies to Reduce Stigma: Shifting Societal Attitudes
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Physical Appearance Changes across Adulthood – Men
Introduction
Physical Appearance and Aging
Young Adulthood
Mid-adulthood
Later Adulthood
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Physical Appearance Changes across Adulthood – Women
Introduction
Women and Specific Physical Appearance Changes
General Attitudes toward Aging and the Changing Body
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Physical Appearance Changes in Childhood and Adolescence – Boys
Introduction
Children’s Awareness of the Human Body
Biological Changes in Childhood and Adolescence
Measurement of Physical Appearance Changes
Psychological Aspects of Physical Appearance Changes
Physical Development and Sexuality
Unexplored Areas of Research
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Physical Appearance Changes in Childhood and Adolescence – Girls
Introduction
Prenatal Development
Childhood
Measuring Puberty
Sequence of Visible Pubertal Development
Causes of Pubertal Development
Psychosocial Development and Puberty
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Physical Attractiveness and Personality
Introduction
Judging a Book by Its Cover: Stereotypes or Realities?
Explanations of Actual Differences
Is Beauty but Skin Deep?
How Observer Personality Affects Perceptions and Reactions to Physical Attractiveness
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Physical Attractiveness
Introduction
The ‘Beautiful Is Good’ Bias
Reactions to Attractive People
When Is Physical Attractiveness Most Important in Romantic Relationships?
Sex Differences in the Importance of Physical Attractiveness
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Physical Attractiveness Stereotyping
Introduction
The Physical Attractiveness Stereotype
Outcomes of the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype
Development of the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Physical Disability and Body Image in Adults
Overview and Concepts
Body Image and Psychological Adaptation to Disability
Developmental Factors Related to Body Image Adjustment
Psychoprosthetics
Interpersonal Aspects of Body Image and Disability
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Physical Disability and Body Image in Children
Introduction: Conceptual Approaches to Physical Disability and Body Image
Disability Experience and Narrative Approaches
Developmental Processes and Body Image
The Body in Clinical and Therapeutic Encounters
Participation, Managing Appearances, and Stigma
Body Image in Media and Technology
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Positive Psychology Perspectives on Body Image
Introduction
What is Positive Psychology?
Characteristics of Positive Body Image
Processes of Positive Body Image
Measuring Positive Body Image
Cultural, Gender, and Age Considerations
Promoting Positive Body Image
Conclusion and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Pregnancy
Introduction
Physical Changes during Pregnancy
Body Image Changes during Pregnancy
Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Preventing Body Image Problems
Introduction
Are Digitally Delivered Psychoeducational Interventions for Body Image Improvement Effective?
Are Digitally Delivered Interventions Based on Emotional Processing Theory for Body Image Improvement Effective?
Advantages and Disadvantages of Digitally Delivered Interventions
What Important Questions Remain Unanswered?
Summary
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Preventing Body Image Problems
Introduction
Ecological and Activism Approaches: Definitions, Theoretical Perspectives, and Related Research
Examples of the Application of Ecological and Activism Approaches to the Prevention of Eating Disorders
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Preventing Body Image Problems
Introduction
Overview of the Field of Public Policy
Securing Government Policy Action for Preventing Body Image Problems
Appropriate Public Policy Targets for Prevention of Body Image Problems
Legislation
Nonbinding Industry Codes of Conduct and Pledges
Social Marketing
Public Policy and School-Based and Community Initiatives
Evaluation of Public Policy Initiatives
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Preventing Body Image Problems
Introduction
Historical Trends in School-Based Programs to Promote Body Image
Concerns and Evidence about Iatrogenesis in School-Based Programs to Improve Body Image
Different Types of School-Based Programs to Improve Body Image
Summary of Programs and Outcomes in Grade Schools, Middle Schools, and High Schools
Issues of Program Fidelity and Program Delivery
The Universal Versus Targeted Program Debate and Issues of Measurement of Program Effectiveness
Inclusion of Males in School-Based Body Image Programs
Recommendations for Future Research and Programs
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Psychodynamic Perspectives on Body Image
Introduction
The Classical Drive Model
The Object Relations Model
Self-Psychology
An Integrative Approach
A Core Conflictual Relationship Theme Formulation of Body Image
Critique of the Psychodynamic Approaches to Body Image
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Psychological Trauma and Body Image
Introduction
Defining Childhood Trauma
Assessment of Childhood Trauma
The Relationship of Psychological Trauma and Eating Disorders
Association of Abuse and Body Image: Nature of the Association
Theoretical Speculations Regarding the Relationship of Psychological Trauma and Body Image
Clinical Aspects of the Psychological Trauma and Associations with Body Image
Treatment Issues and Approaches
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Race, Ethnicity, and Human Appearance
Introduction
Race, Ethnicity, and the Biology of Beauty – Historical Perspectives
Ethnicity, Race, and Beauty in Culture
Beauty and the Dynamism of Culture
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Self-Discrepancy Theory and Body Image
Introduction to Self-Discrepancy Theory
Assessment of Self-Discrepancies
Self-Discrepancy and Body Image
Self-Discrepancy and Weight/Appearance-Related Behaviors
Implications of Self-Discrepancy for Prevention and Intervention Efforts
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Self-Guided Weight Loss
Introduction
Strategies Commonly Used By Self-Guided Dieters: Description and Effectiveness
Lessons from the National Weight Control Registry
Sources of Support for Self-Guided Dieters
Conclusions and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Self-Mutilation and Excoriation
Introduction
Debates over Meanings and Interventions
DSH and Cultural Models
Alternative Perspectives on DSH: Cross-Cultural and Historical Examples
Sexual Violence and Strategies of Survival
Conclusions and Recommendations
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Skin Color
Introduction
Skin Bleaching
Predictors of Skin Bleaching
Skin Darkening
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Skin Conditions
Introduction
Types of Skin Condition
Skin Conditions and the Appearance Aspect of Body Image
Psychosocial Assessment and Intervention
Conclusions and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Smoking and Body Image
Introduction
Smoking Prevalence and Gender
Smoking and Weight Concern
Going Beyond Weight Concern: Body Shame, Body Monitoring, General Appearance Satisfaction, and Smoking
Appearance-Related Smoking Cessation Interventions
Using Appearance Concerns to Reduce Smoking Initiation in Young People
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Social Comparison Theory and Body Image
Introduction
Social Comparison Theory
Social Comparison Theory and Body Image
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Sociocultural Perspectives on Body Image
Introduction
Overview of the Sociocultural Model
Evidence in Support of the Sociocultural Model
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
Implications for Body Image Interventions
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketch
Surveys and the Epidemiology of Body Image Dissatisfaction
Introduction
Meta-analyses and Reviews of Group Differences in Body Dissatisfaction
Overview of Large-Scale Studies of Body Image
Pictorial Measures
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Tanning
Introduction
Theoretical Models
Measurement of Body Image and Appearance-Related Tanning Constructs
Appearance-Based Interventions
Summary
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketches
Teasing, Appearance-Related
Introduction
Teasing Measurement
Targets of Appearance-Related Teasing
Teasing by Parents and Siblings
Appearance-Related Teasing Outcomes
Teasing Prevention
Summary and Future Directions
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Website
Biographical Sketch
Traumatic Injuries and Body Image
Introduction
Body Image and Appearance Concerns
Body Image and Psychosocial Functioning following Traumatic Injury
Recommendations for Clinical Assessment and Treatment
Conclusion
See also
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Biographical Sketch
Weight-Loss Programs
Introduction
Commercial Weight Loss Programs
Medically Supervised Commercial Weight Loss Programs
Internet-Based Commercial Weight Loss Programs
Self-Help Programs
Popular Diets
Diets of Varying Macronutrient Composition
Conclusions
See also
Further Reading
Biographical Sketches
Subject Classification Index
Subject Index