Electronic Measurement Techniques

1 Units and Principles of Electrical Measurement Introduction The M.K.S. System of Units The SI System Absolute Measurements Errors of Measurement Comparison of Electrical Magnitudes Units of Power2 Direct Current Instruments Galvanometers Damping Shunts Choice of a Galvanometer Direct Reading Instruments Multirange Instruments The Ballistic Galvanometer3 Measurement of D.C. Resistance Introduction The Megger Tester Ohmmeters Precision Resistance Measurements High Resistance Measurement Measurement of Low Resistance4 Alternating Current Measurements Unit Alternating Current Deflectional Methods Hot Wire Meters Thermocouple Meters Moving Iron Meters Rectifier Meters Dynamometer Instruments Electrostatic Meters Current Transformers Impedance Meter5 Electronic Voltmeters Introduction True r.m.s. Voltmeter Peak Voltmeter Anode Bend Meters Grid Rectifier Meter Electronic Voltmeters for d.c. Measurements Negative Feedback Special Requirements at High Frequencies Calibration of Electronic Voltmeters Digital Voltmeters6 Alternating Current Galvanometers and Oscillographs Vibration Galvanometers Moving-Coil Oscillographs Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (Focusing — Screens — Magnetic Deflection — Electrostatic Deflection) Sampling Oscilloscopes7 Use of the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope Cathode-Ray Tube as Voltmeter Cathode-Ray Tube as Null Indicator Measurement of Phase Angle Impedance Measurement Time Bases Hard Valve Time Bases Expanded Time Bases Synchronisation Modulation Crystal Resonators Response Curves Damped Oscillations Magnetic Measurements Network Analyser The Spectrum Analyser Measurement of Time Delay8 Alternating Current Null Methods Introduction A.C. Potentiometers A.C. Bridges Mutual Inductance Special Types of Bridge (Wien — Schering — Hay — Maxwell — Owen — Heaviside-Campbell — Anderson) Transformer Turns Ratio Bridge Transformers for a.c. Bridges Thermal Comparator Method Admittance Bridges Further Applications of Null Methods Transformer Ratio Arm Bridge9 Frequency Measurement Introduction Fundamental Unit The Multivibrator Negative-Resistance Oscillators Tuning Fork Oscillator Feedback Oscillator Electron-Coupled Oscillators Crystal Oscillators The Wobbly Oscillator or Wobbulator R-C Sinusoidal Oscillator Measurement of Interpolation Bridge Methods Modulation of Oscillators Lecher Wires Temperature Control Lissajous Figures Frequency Comparison Digital Frequency Meters10 Resonance Methods of Measuring L, C, R and Q. Capacitance by Substitution Method Inductance of Tuning Coils Distributed or Self-Capacitance Measurement of Small Capacitances High-Frequency Resistance Q Measurements11 Measurements on Transistors and Integrated Circuits Introduction The Ic/Vce Characteristic Current Gain a' TheIb/Vbe Characteristic Leakage Current I'co Cut-Off Frequency f'c Resistance Tests Use of the Cathode-Ray Tube Hybrid or h Parameters Bridge Measurements High-Frequency Parameters Integrated Circuits Measurements in Integrated Circuits12 Measurement of Power A.C. Power Dynamometer Wattmeters Induction Meters Three-Ammeter Method Three-Phase Power A.F. and h.f. Power Valve Wattmeters Three-Ammeter Method for h.f. Power Output and Power Level Peak Power Bolometric and Calorimetric Methods Use of Cathode-Ray Tube13 Signal Generators Introduction Test Oscillators Standard Signal Generators V.H.F. Signal Generators Use of Signal Generators Measurement of Conversion Conductance Measurement of Oscillator Harmonic Response Measurements on Detectors Factory Testing of Radio Receivers Routine Tests Attenuators14 Magnetic and Dielectric Measurements Introduction Use of Deflection Magnetometer Vibration Magnetometer Determination of HQ Relation Between Magnetising Force and Intensity of Magnetisation Flux Measurement Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements Forces on Materials in an Electric Field Testing of Permanent Magnet Materials Measurement of Permittivity at High Frequencies Appendix Theory of the Grassot Fluxmeter15 Measurements on A.F. Amplifiers Audio-Frequency Amplifiers Measurements of Overall Characteristics Forms of Distortion Frequency Response Transient Distortion Phase Distortion Non-Linear Distortion Methods of Measuring Distortion Square-Wave Generator Distortion Measurements using Sine Waves16 Measurements at Very High Frequencies Waveguide Modes Cut-Off Frequency Cavity Resonators Bolometers Correction of Mismatch in a Waveguide Waveguide Attenuators Generation of Microwave Frequencies17 Standards for Comparison Purposes Introduction Temperature Compensation Inductance Capacitance Resistance Frequency Standards Standard Cells18 Measurements of Non-Electrical Quantities Measurement of pH Stroboscopic Techniques Single Action Time Metering The Drimeter Servomechanisms using Electronic Links ComputersIndex