Contemporary Research Methods in Pharmacy and Health Services

1st Edition - May 10, 2022
Editors: Shane P. Desselle, Victoria Garcia Cardenas, Claire Anderson, Parisa Aslani, Aleda M. H. Chen, Timothy F. Chen
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 1 8 8 8 - 6
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 1 4 2 6 - 0

Emerging methods, as well as best practices in well-used methods, in pharmacy are of great benefit to researchers, graduate students, graduate programs, residents and fellows al… Read more

Contemporary Research Methods in Pharmacy and Health Services

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Emerging methods, as well as best practices in well-used methods, in pharmacy are of great benefit to researchers, graduate students, graduate programs, residents and fellows also in other health science areas.

Researchers require a text to assist in the design of experiments to address seemingly age-old problems. New interventions are needed to improve medication adherence, patients’ lived experiences in health care, provider-patient relationships, and even various facets of pharmacogenomics. Advances in systems re-engineering can optimize health care practitioners’ roles.

Contemporary Research Methods in Pharmacy and Health Services
includes multi-authored chapters by renowned experts in their field. Chapters cover examples in pharmacy, health services and others transcendent of medical care, following a standardized format, including key research points; valid and invalid assumptions; pitfalls to avoid; applications; and further inquiry.

This is a valuable resource for researchers both in academia and corporate R&D, primarily in pharmacy but also in health services, and other health disciplines. Social science researchers and government scientists can also benefit from the reading.

Cover
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Dedication
Contributors
About the Editors
Preface
Historical underpinnings and growth of pharmacy and health services research
Why we created this textbook
How the book is organized and its contents
What we hope you will gain from this book
Section I: Overarching Design and Reviews Considerations
Chapter 1: Applying human factors and ergonomics methods to pharmaceutical health services research
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Opportunities for HFE in pharmacy
HFE methods for pharmacy research and clinical practice
Comprehensive application of HFE methods in pharmacy research and practice
Case 1: Medication package, label, and information design
Case 2: Human-centered design of a digital decision aid for medication safety
Case 3: Clinic and pharmacy work system analysis of a medication cancellation health IT functionality
Conclusions and considerations
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 2: Designing complex health interventions using experience-based co-design
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Interventions to improve the safety of medication management
What is co-design?
What is experience-based co-design?
Harnessing EBCD in wider health research processes
What are the stages of EBCD?
Adapting EBCD for intervention development and testing as part of a multiphase project
Methodological considerations
Ethical considerations
Accommodating local variation
Combining EBCD with behavior change theories and methods for intervention development
Skills needed for successful intervention development using EBCD
Summary
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 3: Use of common models to inform and design pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Define the terms theory, framework, and model within health care research
Describe various theories, models, and frameworks that have been used and tested in health care research
Describe the steps in developing an idea to operationalization, implementation, testing, and analyzing results; on the springboard of a theory, framework, or model
Explain the conversion of results into meaningful applications for patient care, behavioral change, practice advancement, policy, and future research
Describe common pitfalls during the process and pearls for success
Summary
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Bibliography for each model in social and administrative sciences research (in primary journals RSAP and JAPhA) in the past 5 years
Chapter 4: Implementation science to guide pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
An overview of implementation science
Theories, models, and frameworks in implementation research
Implementation strategies in health services research
Implementation research designs
Standards for reporting implementation research
Overall recommendations for conducting implementation research
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 5: CFIR framework in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
The consolidated framework for implementation research
Use of the consolidated framework for implementation research
Sample pharmacy studies using the consolidated framework for implementation research
Sample review applying and tailoring the CFIR framework to pharmacy services
Application of CFIR to a systematic review of factors influencing national implementation of innovations in community pharmacy
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 6: Principles and applications of metaresearch
Abstract
Introduction
Historical overview
Thematic areas within metaresearch
Metaresearch methods and techniques
Importance of metaresearch
Getting involved in metaresearch
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 7: Best practices when conducting and reporting a meta-analysis
Abstract
Introduction
Meta-analysis: Main concepts
Guidelines for conducting and reporting a meta-analysis
Meta-analysis components
Overall recommendations for reporting metaanalytical parameters
Benefits and limitations of meta-analyses
Meta-analyses on pharmacy services: Where do we stand?
Conclusions
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 8: Using methods from human-centered design in health research: An introduction for pharmacy and health services researchers
Abstract
Introduction
What is design?
Key design approaches
Human-centered design and health services research methods
Working collaboratively
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Section II: Emerging Methodological Approaches and Updates
Chapter 9: Applying action research in social pharmacy and health services research: An overview
Abstract
Acknowledgment
Introduction
Brief history
Definition
Types of action research
Spiral process and research methods used for data collection
Key characteristics
Quality criteria
Common limitations
Recommendations to pharmacy practice and health service research
Writing an action research report
Summary
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 10: Q methodology in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Origins
Principles
Rationale for Q methodology
Procedure
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 11: Medicines optimization and illness management research using dyads
Abstract
Introduction
Key considerations when utilizing dyads in medicines optimization and illness management research
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 12: Using network analysis in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Acknowledgments
What is a network?
What is network analysis (NA)?
A brief introduction to the historical background of networks and network analysis
How has network analysis been used in public health?
The introduction of network analysis in drug utilization studies
How to create a medication use network?
Example data sources and the created networks
Examples of software to use for creating and studying networks
Terminology of network analysis and examples of applied measures
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 13: Designing, evaluating and applying pictograms in pharmacy practice research
Abstract
Overview of health-related pictograms
Current status of pictogram-related research
Insight into pictograms and their interpretation
Designing and/or modifying pictograms and reporting the process
Methods used to evaluate pictogram comprehension and recall
Comments on pictogram-based intervention studies
Study details often inadequately reported/absent103
Aspects to consider in future research
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 14: Application of photovoice in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
What is photovoice?
Background
Guidelines to implement photovoice within pharmacy and health services research
The ethics of photovoice
Considerations for data analysis
Best practices for reporting research studies that implemented photovoice
Examples of photovoice projects relevant for pharmacy and health services research
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 15: The draw and write technique to uncover nuance in pharmacy and health services delivery
Abstract
Arts-informed research
Public perceptions of community pharmacy services
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 16: The use of art to analyze learning practices in pharmacy and to inform assessment and intervention practices
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results and discussion
Reflections and conclusions
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
Appendix: Assessment practices
References
Chapter 17: Evaluating benefits and harms of deprescribing using routinely collected data
Abstract
Introduction
Emulating a target trial
Active comparator, new user design
Prior event rate ratio
Propensity score approaches
Self-controlled designs
Instrumental variables
Discussion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 18: Understanding and addressing the observer effect in observation studies
Abstract
Acknowledgments
The observer effect
Exploring the observer effect in a specific study
Following up an observation study regarding the observer effect
Following up your observation study
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 19: An introduction to how realist research can inform pharmacy practice and policy
Abstract
Outline
Background
Case studies
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Application of process philosophy with organization and management science in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Objectives
Introduction
How can the theory-practice “gap” be better explained and understood?
How can pharmacy practice be understood in a more practically rational way?
How can (re)organizing mentalities be better understood?
Methodological considerations: How can “the doing” of practice be explored?
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 21: Design and application of the simulated patient method in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Study design and application of the simulated patient method
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
Appendix
References
Section III: Qualitative, Hybrid, and Consensus-Gathering Approaches
Chapter 22: Moderation analysis with binary outcomes: Interactions on additive and multiplicative scales
Abstract
Introduction
Review of statistical models with binary outcomes
Review of the linear moderation model
Interactions in logistic regression: Two examples
The scale of interaction: Additive and multiplicative interactions
Conclusions
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 23: The use of ethnography in social pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction: Why ethnography?
Ethnography at a glance
Ethnographic epistemology
Doing ethnography
Ethics
Is ethnography right for me—And how to go forward?
Questions for further discussion
Application exercises/scenarios
References
Chapter 24: Video-reflexive ethnography applications in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
The potential for VRE applications in pharmacy practice research
Discussion: Using VRE in the community pharmacy setting
Conclusions
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
Appendix
References
Chapter 25: Reflexivity practice during ethnographic informed fieldwork
Abstract
Introduction
Importance and challenges with rapport building
Positionality and intersectionality
Discussion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 26: Utilizing a cognitive engineering approach to conduct a hierarchical task analysis to understand complex patient decision making
Abstract
Introduction: Hierarchical task analysis
A framework for conducting hierarchical task analysis
A case study: Understanding how older adults select over-the-counter medications from their community pharmacy using hierarchical task analysis
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 27: Rapid turn-around qualitative analysis applications in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Rapid assessment procedures
Application of rapid assessment procedures in the healthcare setting
Application of rapid assessment procedures in pharmacy practice
Future use of RAP
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 28: Best practices in mixed methods for pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction to mixed methods
Methodological limitations in social pharmacy research and corresponding solutions
Tools and techniques in mixed methods research
Publishing and reviewing mixed method studies
Recommendations for mixed methods research in social pharmacy
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 29: Using textual data in qualitative pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Benefits and challenges of using existing textual data
Collecting existing textual data
Data analysis
Examples of work
Reflections from the examples of work
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 30: Online focus group methodology: Recruitment, facilitation, and reimbursement
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Additional observations and important considerations of online facilitation
Potential advantages and limitations of online focus groups
Summary
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 31: Consensus development methods: Use in the production of national and international frameworks and tools in health systems and policy making
Abstract
Ethics
Declaration of interest
Author contributions
Introduction
What are consensus development methods?
How have CDMs been used at national and international levels?
Discussion
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 32: An overview of the Delphi technique in social pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Mechanics of the Delphi
Origins of the Delphi
Advantages and disadvantages
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 33: Applying the Delphi technique in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Review of pharmacy practice Delphi technique studies
Important highlights from the review
An exemplary case study
Recommendations for researchers thinking about using Delphi in their research
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Section IV: Quantitative Approaches and Analytical Considerations
Chapter 34: Using prescription drug databases for comorbidity adjustment: A remedy for disaster or a prescription for improved model fit?
Abstract
Methods
Review of Charlson comorbidity index
Review of Elixhauser comorbidity index
Charlson comorbidity index vs. Elixhauser comorbidity index
Review of pharmacy measures
Advantages of prescription measures
Disadvantages of prescription measures
Pharmacy vs. diagnostic measures
Combining diagnostic and prescription
Future of prescription measures
Current recommendations
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 35: Handling missing data in surveys—Concepts, approaches, and applications in pharmacy and health services research
Abstract
Introduction
Planning for missing data
Analyzing data with missing values
Missing data in special circumstances
Reporting on missing data
Summary
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 36: Use of national databases and surveys to evaluate prescribing patterns and medication use
Abstract
Introduction
Scope of the NAMCS and NHAMCS
Sample design in the NAMCS and NHAMCS
Data collection for the NAMCS and NHAMCS
Processing of the NAMCS/NHAMCS data
Strengths of the NAMCS/NHAMCS
Analytical considerations of the NAMCS/NHAMCS
Common challenges with the NAMCS/NHAMCS
Evaluating prescribing practices with the NAMCS/NHAMCS
Approaches for evaluating prescribing practicing
Conclusions
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 37: Latent class and latent class regression
Abstract
Introduction
LCA
Example LCA analysis
LC-regression
Summary
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 38: Guidelines and standards in medication adherence research
Abstract
Medication adherence guidelines
Recommendations to improve research on medication adherence
Types of medication adherence measures
Conclusions
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 39: Methodological and disciplinary competence and insecurity in qualitative research
Abstract
Qualitative research within social pharmacy
Underlying understanding of epistemology
Methodological and disciplinary competence and insecurity
Reflexivity
Transparency and checklists
Quality criteria
Sample size, saturation and information power
Going forward
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 40: Contemporary conceptualization of measurement validity
Abstract
Introduction
What is validity?
Historical overview of the concept of validity
Discussing validity when reporting research
Conclusions
Discussion questions
Application exercise/scenario
References
Chapter 41: A practical approach to the assessment and quantification of content validity
Abstract
Introduction
Components of content validity
Assessment of the content validity
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercises/scenarios
References
Chapter 42: Key processes and popular analyses in the SEM family of techniques
Abstract
Objectives
Introduction
Mathematical overview
Analytic process
Interpreting and reporting
Popular analyses
Bayesian SEM
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
References
Chapter 43: Statistical considerations when making potential multiple comparisons
Abstract
Introduction
Type-I and Type-II error
Arguments for and against making adjustments
Conclusion
Questions for further discussion
Application exercise/scenario
References
Index

Shane P. Desselle

Shane Desselle is a Professor at Touro University California and president of Applied Pharmacy Solutions. His research skills include psychometric scaling, including the use of interval and ratio scaling procedures; competency in the use of instruments to measure quality-of-life and outcomes, including the SF-36 and Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire; secondary data analysis-including NAMCS and state Medicaid; a wide variety of methodologies including unobtrusive observation, content analysis, survey questionnaires, and personal interview.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor of Social/Behavior Pharmacy, Touro University California, USA

Victoria Garcia Cardenas

Victoria Garcia Cardenas is a Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy at the University of Technology Sydney. Her teaching and research interests encompass different aspects of pharmacy practice such as medication adherence, the evaluation and implementation of professional pharmacy services and practice change in community pharmacy. She has published over 40 papers in refereed journals, six major research reports and presented and co-authored 40 conference presentations. Victoria is currently involved in five national and international research projects for the evaluation and implementation of professional services in community pharmacy.

Affiliations and expertise

Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

Claire Anderson

Claire Anderson is a Professor of Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham. Her current research areas include people’s experiences of using of medicines; pharmacy education development and pharmacy workforce; medicines at the end of life; pharmacy services e.g. immunisation, services for cancer survivors and osteoporosis.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor of Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, UK

Parisa Aslani

Professor Parisa Aslani, Professor in Medicines Use Optimisation, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006. She is a co-chair of Curriculum Review for the BPharm and MPharm degrees. Expert advisor to staff regarding teaching and learning matters. For example, the development of oral examination rubrics for MPharm UoS PHAR5716 and PHAR5717. Director of Academic Career Development (School of Pharmacy), Faculty of Medicine and Health (0.5 FTE). Vice-President, International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) (since 2020).

Affiliations and expertise

Professor in Medicines Use Optimisation, The University of Sydney, Australia

Aleda M. H. Chen

Aleda M. H. Chen, PharmD, MS, PhD, FAPhA, Professor and Associate Dean at Cedarville University, Cedarville, OH. Dual-Title Doctor of Philosophy in Pharmacy Practice and Gerontology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, Aug 2011.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor and Associate Dean, Cedarville University, Cedarville, OH, USA

Timothy F. Chen

Timothy Chen is a Professor of Medication Management at The University of Sydney, Australia. Professor Timothy Chen is nationally and internationally renowned for his research in medication review and strategies to reduce medication related harm. His research has informed significant practice change, through the implementation of the Commonwealth Government funded Home Medicines Review (HMR) program, provided by pharmacists and GPs. He currently leads a large and productive research team including supervision of PhD, Masters and Honours candidates.

Affiliations and expertise

Professor of Medication Management, The University of Sydney, Australia