Coal Combustion Products (CCPs)

Part One: Nature of coal combustion products

1: An introduction to the nature of coal

• Abstract
• 1.1 Coal formation and rank
• 1.2 Coal composition and mineralogy
• 1.3 Coal beneficiation
• 1.4 Coal pulverizing
• 1.5 Future trends for clean coal technologies

2: Generation and nature of coal fly ash and bottom ash

• Abstract
• 2.1 Common types of coal utilization
• 2.2 Methods for CCP analysis
• 2.3 Classification for standards
• 2.4 Other solid fuels

3: Flue-gas desulfurization products and other air emissions controls

• Abstract
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 FGD for SO₂ control
• 3.3 SO₃ controls
• 3.4 NO_X controls
• 3.5 Mercury controls

Part Two: Utilization of coal combustion products

4: Introduction to the utilization of coal combustion products

• Abstract
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Utilization in the United States
• 4.3 Utilization in Australia
• 4.4 Utilization in Europe
• 4.5 Utilization in the United Kingdom
• 4.6 Utilization in Israel
• 4.7 Utilization in South Africa
• 4.8 Utilization in India
• 4.9 Utilization in China
• 4.10 Conclusion

5: Coal fly ash as a pozzolan

• Abstract
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Definitions
• 5.3 Origin of fly ash
• 5.4 Properties of fly ash and bottom ash
• 5.5 Pozzolanic reaction of fly ash
• 5.6 Influence of fly ash on the properties of concrete
• 5.7 Examples of use in concrete
• 5.8 Specifications for the use of fly ash in concrete
• 5.9 High-volume fly ash concrete
• 5.10 Use of bottom ash
• 5.11 Road bases
• 5.12 Structural pipe bedding
• 5.13 Slope stabilization
• 5.14 Summary

6: The utilization of flue-gas desulfurization materials

• Abstract
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Highway applications
• 6.3 Wallboard
• 6.4 Agricultural applications
• 6.5 Cement manufacturing
• 6.6 Livestock feeding and hay storage pads
• 6.7 Waste stream pollutant fixation
• 6.8 Landfill liner and cap
• 6.9 Land reclamation
• 6.10 Conclusions

7: Fly ash-based geopolymer chemistry and behavior

• Abstract
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Fly ashes used as precursors for alkali activation
• 7.3 AAFA materials: (N,K)–A–S–H gel framework
• 7.4 Tailored mix design for targeted properties (activators, class of ash, chemistry trends)
• 7.5 Structural behavior of AAFA
• 7.6 Fly ash for lightweight materials
• 7.7 Commercial adoption of geopolymer concrete
• 7.8 The case for performance-based standards
• 7.9 Conclusions

Part Three: The beneficiation of coal combustion materials

8: Ash beneficiation, quality, and standard criteria

• Abstract
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 National ash standards
• 8.3 Beneficiation technologies

9: Assessing ash quality and performance

• Abstract
• Acknowledgments
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Carbon content and loss on ignition
• 9.3 Adsorption-based tests for characterizing carbon in fly ash
• 9.4 Particle size measurement
• 9.5 Analysis for incompatibilities
• 9.6 Setting time delays and their mitigation
• 9.7 Strength development issues and their mitigation
• 9.8 Summary

10: Air classification

• Abstract
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Purposes and beneficiation
• 10.3 Theory and fundamental parameters
• 10.4 Air classifiers
• 10.5 Practical uses
• 10.6 Alternative technologies
• 10.7 Future trends
• 10.8 Summary and conclusions

11: Electrostatic beneficiation of fly ash

• Abstract
• 11.1 The benefits and challenges of electrostatic separation
• 11.2 The importance of fly ash properties in electrostatic separation
• 11.3 Fundamentals of electrostatics
• 11.4 Electrostatic separator concepts to separate unburned carbon from fly ash
• 11.5 Commercial electrostatic separation of unburned carbon from fly ash
• 11.6 Summary and conclusion

12: Thermal processing

• Abstract
• 12.1 Background
• 12.2 Effects of thermal beneficiation
• 12.3 Commercial thermal beneficiation
• 12.4 Summary

13: Chemical passivation

• Abstract
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Limitations of traditional testing
• 13.3 Adsorption tests
• 13.4 Automated methods
• 13.5 Chemical passivation
• 13.6 Summary

14: Recovery, processing, and usage of wet-stored fly ash

• Abstract
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Storage of fly ash
• 14.3 Wet-storage effects on fly ash
• 14.4 Processing of stockpile and ponded ash
• 14.5 Direct use of stockpile ash in concrete
• 14.6 Observations and practical issues

15: Fly ash refinement and extraction of useful compounds

• Abstract
• 15.1 Quality improvement
• 15.2 Extraction of valuable compounds
• 15.3 Integral treatment technologies
• 15.4 Concluding remarks

Part Four: Coal products and the environment

16: Coal products and the environment

• Abstract
• 16.1 Environmental benefits of coal product recycling
• 16.2 Risk assessment in the management of coal products
• 16.3 Ash as an internationally traded commodity and the future of the industry

17: Coal combustion products in green building

• Abstract
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 What is green building?
• 17.3 How do CCPs contribute to green products?
• 17.4 How coal combustion products are treated in the green building standards
• 17.5 Measuring impacts of construction materials using LCA
• 17.6 Standard specifications and project specifications
• 17.7 Challenges and opportunities for greater use of CCPs

18: Coal ash in context

• Abstract
• 18.1 Introduction
• 18.2 Overview
• 18.3 What is coal ash?
• 18.4 What constituents are present in coal ash?
• 18.5 Coal ash constituents in US soils
• 18.6 Human health risk assessment
• 18.7 Ecological risk assessment
• 18.8 What does it mean for something to be toxic?
• 18.9 How is exposure evaluated?
• 18.10 Target risk levels
• 18.11 USEPA uses toxicity and exposure information for environmental assessment
• 18.12 Using USEPA screening levels to evaluate coal ash
• 18.13 Studies testing the toxicity of coal ash
• 18.14 Site-specific conceptual site models
• 18.15 How is risk assessment used on a site-specific basis?
• 18.16 How common is a complete groundwater drinking water pathway?
• 18.17 Risk evaluations of the TVA Kingston release
• 18.18 Evaluations of the Dan River spill in North Carolina
• 18.19 Evaluations of private well water in the vicinity of North Carolina ash ponds
• 18.20 Summary

19: Environmental impact and corrective action

• Abstract
• 19.1 Introduction and context
• 19.2 Regulatory framework (as relevant for corrective action of surface impoundments)
• 19.3 Site assessments
• 19.4 Corrective action
• 19.5 Sustainable closure and postclosure care
• 19.6 Conclusion

20: Storage of coal combustion products in the United States: Perspectives on potential human health and environmental risks

• Abstract
• 20.1 Background
• 20.2 History of evaluation of potential human health and ecological risk associated with CCP management
• 20.3 Damage cases
• 20.4 Exposure pathways
• 20.5 Facility design
• 20.6 Hydrogeological environment
• 20.7 Human health and environmental impacts associated with storing CCP in surface impoundments
• 20.8 Human health and environmental impacts associated with storing CCP in landfills
• 20.9 Corrective actions
• 20.10 Impacts associated with surface impoundment closure alternatives
• 20.11 Summary

21: Ash as an internationally traded commodity

• Abstract
• 21.1 Introduction
• 21.2 High-volume surplus markets
• 21.3 International trade: Challenges
• 21.4 International trade: Opportunities
• 21.5 Summary