Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgement vii
CHAPTER 1 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF HUMAN BODY 1
Introduction 1
Subdisciplines of Anatomy and Physiology 2 Anatomical Terminology 3
Basic Processes of the Human Body 5
Homeostasis 6
Control of Homeostasis 6
Feedback System 7
Homeostatic Imbalance 8 Levels of Structural Organization 9
The Cellular Level of Organization 10
The Tissue Level of Organization 31
The System Level of Organization 44 Diseases Associated with Cells and Tissues 48
Cancer 48 CHAPTER 2 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 53
Structure of the Skin 53
The Epidermis 53
The Dermis 56
Colour of the Skin 57 Accessory Structures of the Skin 58
Hair 58
Nails 59
Skin Glands 60 Functions of the Integumentary System 61
Disorders of the Integumentary System 62
CHAPTER 3 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 71
Introduction 71
Functions of the Skeletal System 72 Structure of the Bone 72
Types of Bones 74
Histology of Bone Tissue 75
Types of Bone Tissues 76
Development of Bone Tissue or Formation of Bone 78
Remodelling of Bone 81
Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Bone Remodelling 81 Fracture and Healing of Bone 82
Divisions of the Skeletal System 84
Bone markings 85 The Axial Skeleton 86
Skull 86
Vertebral Column 93
Thoracic Cage 97 The Appendicular Skeleton 98
Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle 98
Upper Limbs 100
Pelvic Girdle 101
Lower Limbs 102 Joints 104
Classification (Types) of Joints 104 Disorders Associated with the Skeletal System 108
Osteoporosis 108
Rickets 109
Osteomalacia 109
Osteomyelitis 109
Paget’s Disease 109
Rheumatoid Arthritis 109
Osteoarthritis 110
Arthritis 110
Gout 110
Bursitis 110 CHAPTER 4 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 117
Introduction 117
Functions of Muscle Tissue 117
Properties of Muscle Tissue 118
Types of Muscle Tissue 118 Skeletal Muscle Tissue 120
Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 120
Physiology of Skeletal Muscle Contraction 122
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibres 129 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 130
Smooth Muscle Tissue 131
Microscopic Anatomy of Smooth Muscle Tissue 131
Physiology of Smooth Muscle Tissue 131 Skeletal Muscles in the Human Body 132
Muscle Terminology: Naming of Skeletal Muscles 133
Location and Function of Skeletal Muscles 134 Disorders Associated with the Muscular System 151
Myasthenia Gravis 151
Muscular Dystrophy 151
Crush Syndrome 151
Abnormal Contractions of Skeletal Muscles 151
Myositis 151
Myalgia 152
Muscle Atrophy and Hypertrophy 152 CHAPTER 5 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 159
Introduction 159
Overview of the Nervous System 160
Functions of the Nervous System 161
Organization of the Nervous System 162 Histology of Nervous Tissue 164
Neurons 164
Neuroglia 168
Grey and White Matter 169 The Physiology of Nerve Impulse (Action Potential) 170
The Synaptic Transmission 172
Response of Nervous Tissue to Injury 173
Repair of Neurons in the PNS 173
Repair of Neuroglia 173 Brain 174
The Cerebrum 181
The Diencephalon 189
The Brain Stem 193
The Cerebellum 194
Cranial Nerves 195 Spinal Cord 197
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 197
Physiology of the Spinal Cord 199
Refl ex Arc 200
Spinal Nerves 202 The Autonomic Nervous System 206
Sympathetic Division 207
Parasympathetic Division 208 Pain Pathway 209
Pathways of Pain Sensation 210 Disorders Associated with the Nervous System 211
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident) 211
Epilepsy 212
Parkinson’s Disease 212
Neuritis 212
Alzheimer’s Disease 212
Multiple Sclerosis 213
Tetanus 213
Poliomyelitis 213
Brain Injury 214
Cerebral Palsy 214
Meningitis 214
Encephalitis 215
Hydrocephalus 215 CHAPTER 6 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 223
Introduction 223
Hormones 226 Hypothalamus 228
Anatomical Structure 228
Hormones 228 Pituitary Gland 229
Anatomical Structure 229
Anterior Pituitary 230
Posterior Pituitary 233 Pineal Gland 234
Anatomical Structure 234
Hormones 234 Thyroid Gland 234
Anatomical Structure 234
Hormones 235 Parathyroid Glands 235
Anatomical Structure 235
Hormones 236 Adrenal Glands 237
Anatomical Structure 237
Adrenal Cortex 237
Adrenal Medulla 239 Pancreas 240
Anatomical Structure 240
Hormones 240 Gonads 242
Anatomical Structure 242
Hormones 242 Gastrointestinal Hormones 244
Other Endocrine Glands 244
Disorders Associated with the Endocrine System 245
Addison’s Disease 245
Diabetes Mellitus 245
Diabetes Insipidus 245
Goitre 245
Hyperthyroidism 245
Hypothyroidism 246
Acromegaly 246
Gigantism 246
Pituitary Dwarfi sm 246
Cushing’s Disease 247
Grave’s Disease (Thyrotoxicosis) 247
Myxedema 247
Cretinism 247 CHAPTER 7 THE BLOOD 257
Introduction 257
Properties of Blood 257
Functions of Blood 258 Components of Blood 260
Plasma 260
Blood Cells 263 Blood Groups 280
ABO Blood Group 280
Rh Blood Group 282 Blood Coagulation 284
Disorders Associated with Blood 289
Anaemia 289
Sickle Cell Anaemia 289
Haemophilia 289
Leukaemia 290
Thrombosis 290 CHAPTER 8 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 295
Introduction 295
The Lymphatic System 295
Lymph 296
Composition of Lymph 297
Formation of Lymph 297 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 298
Lymph Capillaries 298
Lymphatic Vessels 298
Lymphatic Trunk 299
Lymphatic Ducts 300
Flow of Lymph 302 Lymph Nodes 303
Structure of the Lymph Node 303
Functions of the Lymph Nodes 304 Organs of the Lymphatic System 305
Spleen 305
Thymus Gland 306
Lymphatic Nodule 308 Disorders Associated with the Lymphatic System 309
Lymphoid Leukaemia 309
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma 310
Lymphoedema 310
Acute Lymphadenitis 310
Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma 310
Splenomegaly 310
Tonsillitis 310
Bubonic Plague 310 CHAPTER 9 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 315
Introduction 315
Nonspecific Resistance/Innate Immunity 317
Specific Resistance/Acquired Immunity 317
Cell-mediated/Cellular Immunity 317
Antibody Mediated Immunity or Humoral Immunity 320 Immunization 323
Passive Immunity 323
Active Immunity 324 Terminology Related to Immunity 325
Antigens 325
Antimicrobial Proteins 326
Natural Killer Cells 326
Phagocytes 326
Antibodies 326
- Diseases Associated with the Immune System 329
- Hypersensitivity (Allergy) 329
- Autoimmune Diseases 330
- Acquired Immune Defi ciency Syndrome (AIDS) 330
CHAPTER 10 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 337
Introduction 337
Anatomy of the Respiratory System 340
Nose and Nasal Cavity 340
Pharynx 344
Larynx 348
Trachea 352
Bronchi, Bronchioles and Alveoli 354
Lungs 357 Physiology of the Respiratory System 360
Basic Steps in Respiration 360
Cycle of Respiration 362
Lung Volumes and Capacities 364
Pulmonary Function Tests 367
Breathing Patterns and Modifi ed Respiratory Movements 369
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Bloodstream 371
Regulation of Respiration 374
Artificial Respiration 376
Disorders of the Respiratory System 377 CHAPTER 11 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 395
Introduction 395
Anatomy and Physiology of the Heart 396
Position 398
Location 398
Structure 399
Flow of Blood Through the Heart 404 Blood Circulation 404
Systemic circulation 404
Pulmonary Circulation 409
Fetal Circulation 411 Cardiac Conduction System 413
Action Potential in Cardiac Muscle 414 The Cardiac Cycle 415
Stages of Cardiac Cycle 415 Heart Sounds 418
Different Heart Sounds 419
Importance of Heart Sounds 419 Electrocardiogram 420
Electrocardiograph or ECG Machine 420 Blood Pressure 422
Variations in BP 423
Determinants of BP—Factors that Maintain BP 424
Regulation of BP 425 Cardiac Output 429
Variations in CO 429
Regulation of CO 430 Heart Rate 433
Regulation of Heart Rate 433 Disorders of the Cardiovascular System 434
Coronary Artery Disease 434
Congestive Heart Failure 436
Cardiac Murmurs 437
Pericarditis 437
Myocarditis 438
Endocarditis 438
Ischaemic Heart Disease 438
Cardiac Arrhythmia 439
Congenital Abnormalities 439
Rheumatic Heart Disease 443
Hypertension 443 CHAPTER 12 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 451
Introduction 451
Components of the Digestive System 452
Layers of the Digestive System 453
Mucosa 454
Submucosa 455
Muscularis/Muscle Layer 455
Adventitia/Serosa/peritoneum 456 Neuronal Control of the GI Tract—The Enteric Nervous System 457
Blood Circulation of the Digestive System—
Splanchnic Circulation 458
Components of the Gastrointestinal Tract 459
Mouth 459
Pharynx 465
Oesophagus 466
Stomach 469
Small Intestine 476
Large Intestine 481 Accessory Organs 485
Liver 485
Gallbladder 489
Pancreas 491
Salivary Glands 494 Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients in the GI Tract 496
Basic Mechanism of Digestion 496
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates 498
Digestion and Absorption of Proteins 498
Digestion and Absorption of Fats 499 Diseases of the Digestive System 500
Diseases of the Mouth 500
Diseases of the Salivary Glands 502
Diseases of the Oesophagus 503
Diseases of the Stomach 503
Diseases of the Intestine 504
Diseases of the Pancreas 506
Diseases of the Liver 506
Diseases of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts 507
Other Diseases of Digestive System 508 CHAPTER 13 THE URINARY SYSTEM 515
Introduction 515
Organs of the Urinary System 515
Functions of the Urinary System 516
Kidney 517
Ureters 532
Urinary Bladder 532
Urethra 533 Micturition 534
Micturition Refl ex 534 Disorders of the Urinary System 535
Urinary Tract Infections 535
Glomerulonephritis 535
Polycystic Disease 535
Pyelonephritis 536
Nephrotic Syndrome 536
Acute Renal Failure 536
Chronic Renal Failure 536
Renal Calculi 536
Tumour of the Urinary Bladder 536
Nephroptosis or Floating Kidney 537
Other Diseases of Urinary System 537 CHAPTER 14 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 545
Introduction 545
Male Reproductive System 545
Testes 546
Ducts of Testis 552
Accessory glands 554
Supporting Structures 556 Female Reproductive System 557
Ovary 558
Fallopian/Uterine Tubes 562
Uterus or Womb 563
Vagina 564
Vulva or External Female Genitalia 565
Mammary Glands or Breasts 567
Role of Different Hormones in the Female Reproductive System 568
Menstrual Cycle 569
Pregnancy, Embryonic Development and Parturition 573 Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System 575
Functional Problems 575
Cancers of Reproductive Organs 575
Infections in the Reproductive System 575
Congenital Abnormalities 576
Other Diseases of the Reproductive System 576 CHAPTER 15 THE SENSE ORGANS 585
Introduction 585
Eyes (Organs of Sight) 585
Structure of the Eye 586
Accessory Structures of the Eye 592
Physiology of Vision 593 Ears: The Organs of Hearing and Equilibrium 599
Structure of the Ear 599
Physiology of Hearing 603
Physiology of Equilibrium 605 Sense of Smell 607
Olfactory Receptors 607
Physiology of Olfaction (Smell) 607
Olfactory Pathway 607 Sense of Taste 608
Taste Buds 608
Physiology of Gustation (Taste) 609 Diseases Associated with Sense Organs 610
Otitis Media 610
Meniere’s Disease 610
Conjunctivitis 610
Glaucoma 610
Cataract 610
Refractive Errors of the Eye 610 Appendices Health Education 619
Appendix A: Concept of Health and Disease 619
Health 619
Disease 619 Appendix B: Nutrition and Health 621
Appendix C: Demography and Family Planning 624
Demography 624
Family Planning 624 Appendix D: Communicable Diseases 626
Chicken Pox (varicella) 626
Measles or Rubeola 626
Influenza 627
Leprosy 627
Syphilis 628
Gonorrhoea 628
Diphtheria 628
Whooping Cough (Pertussis) 629
Tuberculosis (TB) 629
Poliomyelitis 630
Tetanus 630
Rabies 631
Trachoma 632 
