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Food Process Engineering and Technology
1st Edition - September 25, 2008
Author: Zeki Berk
Editor: Zeki Berk
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 0 8 - 0 9 2 0 2 3 - 8
The past 30 years have seen the establishment of food engineering both as an academic discipline and as a profession. Combining scientific depth with practical usefulness, this… Read more
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The past 30 years have seen the establishment of food engineering both as an academic discipline and as a profession. Combining scientific depth with practical usefulness, this book serves as a tool for graduate students as well as practicing food engineers, technologists and researchers looking for the latest information on transformation and preservation processes as well as process control and plant hygiene topics.
*Strong emphasis on the relationship between engineering and product quality/safety
*Links theory and practice
*Considers topics in light of factors such as cost and environmental issues
*Links theory and practice
*Considers topics in light of factors such as cost and environmental issues
Introduction – Food is Life
1 Physical Properties of Food Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mechanical Properties
1.2.1 Definitions
1.2.2 Rheological Models
1.3 Thermal Properties
1.4 Electrical Properties
1.5 Structure
1.6 Water Activity
1.6.1 The Importance of Water in Foods
1.6.2 Water Activity, Definition and Determination
1.6.3 Water Activity: Prediction
1.6.4 Water Vapor Sorption Isotherms
1.6.5 Water Activity: Effect on Food Quality and Stability
1.7 Phase Transition Phenomena in Foods
1.7.1 The Glassy State in Foods
1.7.2 Glass Transition Temperature
2 Fluid Flow
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Elements of Fluid Dynamics
2.2.1 Viscosity
2.2.2 Fluid Flow Regimes
2.2.3 Typical Applications of Newtonian Laminar Flow
2.2.4 Turbulent Fluid Flow
2.3 Flow Properties of Fluids
2.3.1 Types of Fluid Flow Behaviour
2.3.2 Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow in Pipes
2.4 Transportation of Fluids
2.4.1 Energy Relations,theBernoulli Equation
2.4.2 Pumps: Types and Operation
2.4.3 Pump Selection
2.4.4 Ejectors
2.4.5 Piping
2.5 Flow of Particulate Solids (Powder Flow)
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Flow Properties of Particulate Solids
2.5.3 Fluidization
2.5.4 Pneumatic Transport
3 Heat and Mass Transfer, Basic Principles
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Basic Relations in Transport Phenomena
3.2.1 Basic Laws of Transport
3.2.2 Mechanisms of Heat and Mass Transfer
3.3 Conductive Heat and Mass Transfer
3.3.1 The Fourier and Fick Laws
3.3.2 Integration of Fourier’s and Fick's Laws for Steady-State Conductive Transport
3.3.3 Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity and Molecular Diffusivity
3.3.4 Examples of Steady-State Conductive Heat and Mass Transfer Processes
3.4 Convective Heat and Mass Transfer
3.4.1 Film (Or Surface) Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients
3.4.2 Empirical Correlations for Convection Heat and Mass Transfer
3.4.3 Steady-State Interphase Mass Transfer
3.5 Unsteady State Heat and Mass Transfer
3.5.1 The 2 Nd Fourier and Fick Laws
3.5.2 Solution of Fourier’s Second Law Equation for an Infinite Slab
3.5.3 Transient Conduction Transfer Infinite Solids
3.5.4 Transient Convective Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Body
3.5.5 Unsteady State Convective Transfer
3.6 Heat Transfer By Radiation
3.6.1 Interaction Between Matter and Thermal Radiation
3.6.2 Radiation Heat Exchange Between Surfaces
3.6.3 Radiation Combined With Convection
3.7 Heat Exchangers
3.7.1 Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer
3.7.2 Heat Exchange Between Flowing Fluids
3.7.3 Fouling
3.7.4 Heat Exchangers intheFood Process Industry
3.8 Microwave Heating
3.8.1 Basic Principles of Microwave Heating
3.9 Ohmic Heating
3.9.1 Introduction
3.9.2 Basic Principles
3.9.3 Applications and Equipment
4 Reaction Kinetics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Concepts
4.2.1 Elementary and Non-Elementary Reactions
4.2.2 Reaction Order
4.2.3 Effect of Temperature on Reaction Kinetics
4.3 Kinetics of Biological Processes
4.3.1 Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
4.3.2 Growth of Micro-Organisms
4.4 Residence Time and Residence Time Distribution
4.4.1 Reactors in Food Processing
4.4.2 Residence Time Distribution
5 Elements of Process Control
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic Concepts
5.3 Basic Control Structures
5.3.1 Feedback Control
5.3.2 Feed-Forward Control
5.3.3 Comparative Merits of Control Strategies
5.4 The Block Diagram
5.5 Input, Output and Process Dynamics
5.5.1 First Order Response
5.5.2 Second Order Systems
5.6 Control Modes (Control Algorithms)
5.6.1 On-Off (Binary) Control
5.6.2 Proportional (P) Control
5.6.3 Integral (I) Control
5.6.4 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
5.6.5 Proportional-Integral-Differential (PID) Control
5.6.6 Optimization of Control
5.7 The Physical Elements of the Control System
5.7.1 The Sensors (Measuring Elements)
5.7.2 The Controllers
5.7.3 The Actuators
6 Size Reduction
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution
6.2.1 Defining the Size of a Single Particle
6.2.2 Particle Size Distribution in a Population of Particles; Defining a 'Mean Particle Size'
6.2.3 Mathematical Models of PSD
6.2.4 A Note on Particle Shape
6.3 Size Reduction of Solids, Basic Principles
6.3.1 Mechanism of Size Reduction in Solids
6.3.2 Particle Size Distribution After Size Reduction
6.3.3 Energy Consumption
6.4 Size Reduction of Solids, Equipment and Methods
6.4.1 Impact Mills
6.4.2 Pressure Mills
6.4.3 Attrition Mills
6.4.4 Cutters and Choppers
7 Mixing
7.1 Introduction 175
7.2 Mixing of Fluids (Blending)
7.2.1 Types of Blenders
7.2.2 Flow Patterns in Fluid Mixing
7.2.3 Energy Input in Fluid Mixing 178
7.3 Kneading
7.4 In-Flow Mixing
7.5 Mixing of Particulate Solids
7.5.1 Mixing and Segregation
7.5.2 Quality of Mixing,theConcept of 'Mixedness'
7.5.3 Equipment for Mixing Particulate Solids
7.6 Homogenization
7.6.1 Basic Principles
7.6.2 Homogenizers
8 Filtration
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Depth Filtration
8.3 Surface (Barrier) Filtration
8.3.1 Mechanisms
8.3.2 Rate of Filtration
8.3.3 Optimization of the Filtration Cycle
8.3.4 Characteristics of Filtration Cakes
8.3.5 The Role of Cakes in Filtration
8.4 Filtration Equipment
8.4.1 Depth Filters
8.4.2 Barrier (Surface) Filters
8.5 Expression
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Mechanisms
8.5.3 Applications and Equipment
9 Centrifugation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Basic Principles
9.2.1 The Continuous Settling Tank
9.2.2 FromtheSettling Tank TotheTubular Centrifuge
9.2.3 The Baffled Settling Tank and the Disc-Bowl Centrifuge
9.2.4 Liquid–Liquid Separation
9.3 Centrifuges
9.3.1 Tubular Centrifuges
9.3.2 Disc-Bowl Centrifuges
9.3.3 Decanter Centrifuges
9.3.4 Basket Centrifuges
9.4 Cyclones
10 Membrane Processes
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Tangential Filtration
10.3 Mass Transfer Through MF and UF Membranes
10.3.1 Solvent Transport
10.3.2 Solute Transport; Sieving Coefficient and Rejection
10.3.3 Concentration Polarization and Gel Polarization
10.4 Mass Transfer in Reverse Osmosis
10.4.1 Basic Concepts
10.4.2 Solvent Transport in Reverse Osmosis
10.5 Membrane Systems
10.5.1 Membrane Materials
10.5.2 Membrane Configurations
10.6 Membrane Processes intheFood Industry9
10.6.1 Microfiltration
10.6.2 Ultrafiltration
10.6.3 Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis
10.7 Electrodialysis
11 Extraction
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Solid–Liquid Extraction (Leaching)
11.2.1 Definitions
11.2.2 Material Balance
11.2.3 Equilibrium
11.2.4 Multistage Extraction
11.2.5 Stage Efficiency
11.2.6 Solid–Liquid Extraction Systems
11.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
11.3.1 Basic Principles
11.3.2 Supercritical Fluids As Solvents
11.3.3 Supercritical Extraction Systems
11.3.4 Applications
11.4 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
11.4.1 Principles
11.4.2 Applications
12 Adsorption and Ion Exchange
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Equilibrium Conditions
12.3 Batch Adsorption
12.4 Adsorption in Columns
12.5 Ion Exchange
12.5.1 Basic Principles
12.5.2 Properties of Ion Exchangers
12.5.3 Application: Water Softening Using Ion Exchange
12.5.4 Application: Reduction of Acidity in Fruit Juices
13 Distillation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium (VLE)
13.3 Continuous Flash Distillation
13.4 Batch (Differential) Distillation
13.5 Fractional Distillation
13.5.1 Basic Concepts
13.5.2 Analysis and Design OftheColumn
13.5.3 Effect OftheRefl Ux Ratio
13.5.4 Tray Configuration
13.5.5 Column Configuration
13.5.6 Heating With Live Steam
13.5.7 Energy Considerations
13.6 Steam Distillation
13.7 Distillation of Wines and Spirits
14 Crystallization and Dissolution
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Crystallization Kinetics
14.2.1 Nucleation
14.2.2 Crystal Growth
14.3 Crystallization intheFood Industry
14.3.1 Equipment
14.3.2 Processes
14.4 Dissolution
14.4.1 Introduction
14.4.2 Mechanism and Kinetics
15 Extrusion
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Single-Screw Extruder
15.2.1 Structure
15.2.2 Operation
15.2.3 Flow Models, Extruder Throughput
15.2.4 Residence Time Distribution
15.3 Twin-Screw Extruders
15.3.1 Structure
15.3.2 Operation
15.3.3 Advantages and Shortcomings
15.4 Effect on Foods
15.4.1 Physical Effects
15.4.2 Chemical Effect
15.5 Food Applications of Extrusion
15.5.1 Forming Extrusion of Pasta
15.5.2 Expanded Snacks
15.5.3 Ready-To-Eat Cereals
15.5.4 Pellets
15.5.5 Other Extruded Starchy and Cereal Products
15.5.6 Texturized Protein Products
15.5.7 Confectionery and Chocolat
15.5.8 Pet Foods
16 Spoilage and Preservation of Foods
16.1 Mechanisms of Food Spoilage
16.2 Food Preservation Processes
16.3 Combined Processes (The 'Hurdle Effect')
16.4 Packaging
17 Thermal Processing
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Kinetics of Thermal Inactivation of Micro-Organisms and Enzymes
17.2.1 The Concept of Decimal Reduction Time
17.2.2 Effect OftheTemperature OntheRate of Thermal Destruction/Inactivation
17.3 Lethality of Thermal Processes
17.4 Optimization of Thermal Processes with Respect to Quality
17.5 Heat Transfer Considerations in Thermal Processing
17.5.1 In-Package Thermal Processing
17.5.2 In-Flow Thermal Processing
18 Thermal Processes, Methods and Equipment
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Thermal Processing in Hermetically Closed Containers
18.2.1 Filling IntotheCans
18.2.2 Expelling Air FromtheHead-Space
18.2.3 Sealing
18.2.4 Heat Processing
18.3 Thermal Processing in Bulk, Before Packaging
18.3.1 Bulk Heating – Hot Filling – Sealing – Cooling in Container
18.3.2 Bulk Heating – Holding – Bulk Cooling – Cold Filling – Sealing
18.3.3 Aseptic Processing
19 Refrigeration, Chilling and Freezing
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Effect of Temperature on Food Spoilage
19.2.1 Temperature and Chemical Activity
19.2.2 Effect of Low Temperature on Enzymatic Spoilage
19.2.3 Effect of Low Temperature on Microorganisms
19.2.4 Effect of Low Temperature on Biologically Active (Respiring) Tissue
19.2.5 The Effect of Low Temperature on Physical Properties
19.3 Freezing
19.3.1 Phase Transition, Freezing Point
19.3.2 Freezing Kinetics, Freezing Time
19.3.3 Effect of Freezing and Frozen Storage on Product Quality
20 Refrigeration, Equipment and Methods
20.1 Sources of Refrigeration
20.1.1 Mechanical Refrigeration
20.1.2 Refrigerants
20.1.3 Distribution and Delivery of Refrigeration
20.2 Cold Storage and Refrigerated Transport
20.3 Chillers and Freezers
20.3.1 Blast Cooling
20.3.2 Contact Freezers
20.3.3 Immersion Cooling
20.3.4 Evaporative Cooling
21 Evaporation
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Material and Energy Balance
21.3 Heat Transfer
21.3.1 The Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer U
21.3.2 The Temperature Difference TS – TC ( ΔT)
21.4 Energy Management
21.4.1 Multiple-Effect Evaporation
21.4.2 Vapor Recompression
21.5 Condensers
21.6 Evaporators intheFood Industry
21.6.1 Open Pan Batch Evaporator
21.6.2 Vacuum Pan Evaporator
21.6.3 Evaporators With Tubular Heat Exchangers
21.6.4 Evaporators With External Tubular Heat Exchangers
21.6.5 Boiling Film Evaporators1
21.7 Effect of Evaporation on Food Quality
21.7.1 Thermal Effects
21.7.2 Loss of Volatile Flavor Components
22 Dehydration
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Thermodynamics of Moist Air (Psychrometry)
22.2.1 Basic Principles
22.2.2 Humidity
22.2.3 Saturation, Relative Humidity (RH)
22.2.4 Adiabatic Saturation, Wet-Bulb Temperature
22.2.5 Dew Point ..
22.3 Convective Drying (Air Drying)
22.3.1 The Drying Curve
22.3.2 The Constant Rate Phase
22.3.3 The Falling Rate Phase
22.3.4 Calculation of Drying Time
22.3.5 Effect of External Conditions OntheDrying Rate
22.3.6 Relationship Between Film Coefficients in Convective Drying
22.3.7 Effect of Radiation Heating
22.3.8 Characteristic Drying Curves
22.4 Drying Under Varying External Conditions
22.4.1 Batch Drying on Trays
22.4.2 Through-Flow Batch Drying in a Fixed Bed
22.4.3 Continuous Air Drying on a Belt or in a Tunne
22.5 Conductive (Boiling) Drying
22.5.1 Basic Principles
22.5.2 Kinetics
22.5.3 Systems and Applications
22.6 Dryers intheFood Processing Industry
22.6.1 Cabinet Dryers
22.6.2 Tunnel Dryers
22.6.3 Belt Dryers
22.6.4 Belt-Trough Dryers
22.6.5 Rotary Dryers
22.6.6 Bin Dryers
22.6.7 Grain Dryers
22.6.8 Spray Dryers
22.6.9 Fluidized Bed Dryer
22.6.10 Pneumatic Dryer
22.6.11 Drum Dryers
22.6.12 Screw Conveyor and Mixer Dryers
22.6.13 Sun Drying, Solar Drying
22.7 Issues in Food Drying Technology
22.7.1 Pre-Drying Treatments
22.7.2 Effect of Drying Conditions on Quality
22.7.3 Post-Drying Treatments
22.7.4 Rehydration Characteristics
22.7.5 Agglomeration
22.8 Energy Consumption in Drying
22.9 Osmotic Dehydration
23 Freeze Drying (Lyophilization) and Freeze Concentration
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Sublimation of Water
23.3 Heat and Mass Transfer in Freeze Drying
23.4 Freeze Drying, in Practice
23.4.1 Freezing
23.4.2 Drying Conditions
23.4.3 Freeze Drying, Commercial Facilities
23.4.4 Freeze Dryers
23.5 Freeze Concentration
23.5.1 Basic Principles
23.5.2 The Process of Freeze Concentration
24 Frying, Baking, Roasting
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Frying
24.2.1 Types of Frying
24.2.2 Heat and Mass Transfer in Frying
24.2.3 Systems and Operation
24.2.4 Health Aspects of Fried Foods
24.3 Baking and Roasting
25 Ionizing Irradiation and Other Non-Thermal Preservation Processes
25.1 Preservation By Ionizing Radiations
25.1.1 Introduction
25.1.2 Ionizing Radiations
25.1.3 Radiation Sources
25.1.4 Interaction With Matter
25.1.5 Radiation Dose
25.1.6 Chemical and Biological Effects of Ionizing Irradiation
25.1.7 Industrial Applications
25.2 High Hydrostatic Pressure Preservation
25.3 Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF)
25.4 Pulsed Intense Light
26 Food Packaging
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Packaging Materials
26.2.1 Introduction
26.2.2 Materials for Packaging Foods
26.2.3 Transport Properties of Packaging Materials
26.2.4 Optical Properties
26.2.5 Mechanical Properties
26.2.6 Chemical Reactivity
26.3 The Atmosphere in the Package
26.3.1 Vacuum Packaging
26.3.2 Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP)
26.3.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
26.3.4 Active Packaging
26.4 Environmental Issues
27 Cleaning, Disinfection, Sanitation
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Cleaning Kinetics and Mechanisms
27.2.1 Effect of the Contaminant
27.2.2 Effect of the Support
27.2.3 Effect of the Cleaning Agent
27.2.4 Effect of the Temperature
27.2.5 Effect of Mechanical Action (Shear)
27.3 Kinetics of Disinfection
27.4 Cleaning of Raw Materials
27.5 Cleaning of Plants and Equipment
27.5.1 Cleaning Out of Place (COP)
27.5.2 Cleaning in Place (CIP)
27.6 Cleaning of Packages
27.7 Odor Abatement
Appendix
Table A.1 Common Conversion Factors
Table A.2 Typical Composition of Selected Foods
Table A.3 Viscosity and Density of Gases and Liquids
Table A.4 Thermal Properties of Materials
Table A.5 Emissivity of Surfaces
Table A.6 US Standard Sieves
Table A.7 Properties of Saturated Steam – Temperature Table
Table A.8 Properties of Saturated Steam – Pressure Table
Table A.9 Properties of Superheated Steam
Table A.10 Vapor Pressure of Liquid Water and Ice Below 0°C
Table A.11 Freezing Point of Ideal Aqueous Solutions
Table A.12 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Data for Ethanol–Water Mixtures at 1 ATM
Table A.13 Boiling Point of Sucrose Solutions at 1 ATM
Table A.14 Electrical Conductivity of Some Materials
Table A.15 Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated R-134a
Table A.16 Thermodynamic Properties of Superheated R-134a
Table A.17 Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure
Figure A.1 Friction Factors for Flow in Pipe
Figure A.2 Psychrometric Chart
Figure A.3 Mixing Power Function, Turbine Impellers
Figure A.4 Mixing Power Function, Propeller Impellers
Figure A.5 Unsteady State Heat Transfer in a Slab
Figure A.6 Unsteady State Heat Transfer in an Infinite Cylinder
Figure A.7 Unsteady State Heat Transfer in a Sphere
Figure A.8 Unsteady State Mass Transfer, Average Concentration
Figure A.9 Error Function
Index
Series List
- No. of pages: 624
- Language: English
- Published: September 25, 2008
- Imprint: Academic Press
- eBook ISBN: 9780080920238
ZB
Zeki Berk
Dr. Berk is a chemical engineer and food scientist with a long history of work in food engineering, including appointments as a professor at Technion IIT, MIT, and Agro-Paris and as a consultant at UNIDO, FAO, the Industries Development Corporation, and Nestle. He is the recipient of the International Association of Food and Engineering Life Achievement Award (2011), and has written 6 books (3 with Elsevier) and numerous papers and reviews. His main research interests include heat and mass transfer and kinetics of deterioration.
Affiliations and expertise
Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, HaifaZB
Zeki Berk
Dr. Berk is a chemical engineer and food scientist with a long history of work in food engineering, including appointments as a professor at Technion IIT, MIT, and Agro-Paris and as a consultant at UNIDO, FAO, the Industries Development Corporation, and Nestle. He is the recipient of the International Association of Food and Engineering Life Achievement Award (2011), and has written 6 books (3 with Elsevier) and numerous papers and reviews. His main research interests include heat and mass transfer and kinetics of deterioration.
Affiliations and expertise
Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa