Cultures and Behavior To order this title, and for more information, click here
By Yvette Reisinger, PhD, Associate Professor at the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA
Description In recent years there has been a considerable interest in the cultural aspects of tourism such as the impacts of culture on tourism planning,
development, management, and marketing. However, the focus has been on material forms of culture such as arts, music, or crafts. The
impacts of national culture on tourist behavior and travel decision-making have not been paid much attention. Only in the last two years
have cross-cultural issues begun to generate significant interest among academics.
An examination of cultural characteristics and differences
is extremely important to the tourism industry because today's tourism environment is becoming increasingly international. Advances in
technology, and improved communication and transportation have enhanced peoples' mobility and travel such that exposure to culturally
different societies, cultures exchanges and interactions is now commonplace. It is imperative for industry representatives, who operate
in the international business environment and deal with foreign tourists on a daily basis, to understand the influence of national cultures
of their customers.
Unfortunately, information on the nature of the cultural differences between international tourists and locals
is not readily available in tourism literature. The concept of culture is very complex. The analysis of cultural differences in a multidisciplinary
tourism context and/or application of the literature on cultural differences in the abstract concepts such as satisfaction, attitude
or loyalty (that have different meanings in different cultures) to the tourism context create problems. Although the effects of national
characteristics on consumer behavior in general have been investigated in several research studies, more information is required concerning
the cultural differences in the tourism context.
This book will bring these concepts to the undergraduate student in tourism, as well
as students in the related fields of marketing, management, international business, and cross-cultural communication. Designed as a
textbook, it will organized and presented in an integrated and relevant way for the benefit of a worldwide audience.
Audience
Undergraduate students in tourism. Grad. students and tourism practitioners who deal with cross-cultural issues and communication
Contents Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Preface
List of Tables
List of Figures
Foreword
Introduction
Aims
Scope
Reader benefits
General market
Part One International Tourism: The Global Environment
1 Globalization, tourism and culture
Introduction
1.1 The concept and roots
of globalization
1.2 Benefits and criticism of globalization
1.3 Globalization and the tourism industry
1.3.1 The influence of globalization
on tourism
1.3.2 Forms and examples of globalization in tourism
1.3.3 A new type of tourist
1.3.4 A new type of tourism
1.4 Globalization
and culture
1.4.1 The emergence of globalized consumer culture?
1.4.2 Global consumer and global products?
1.4.3 Disappearance of local
cultures?
1.4.4 Cultural homogenization?
1.4.5 Product standardization or customization?
1.4.6 Cultural heterogenization?
1.4.7 Cultural
convergence or divergence?
1.4.8 Cultural hybridization?
1.4.9 Cultural commoditization?
1.4.10 Cultural deterioration, loss, adaptation
or change?
1.4.11 Consumerism a bad thing for tourism?
1.4.12 Globalization and disappearance of local identity?
1.4.13 Resistance to
cultural change and emergence of local identity
1.4.14 Glocalisation
1.4.15 Local internationalization and regional cooperation
1.5 Benefits
and limitations of globalization in tourism
1.6 Challenges of globalization in tourism
1.7 The future of globalization: Americanization
of culture, cosmopolitan culture, cultural hybridization, cultural disappearance or culture clash?
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 1.1: The emergence of a global tourist culture? Disneyland resorts spread over the world
Website links
References
2 Cultural diversity
Introduction
2.1 The concept of cultural diversity
2.1.1 Definition
2.1.2 Interpretation of cultural
diversity
2.1.3 How did the concept of cultural diversity develop?
2.1.4 How to measure cultural diversity?
2.1.5 Is cultural diversity
important?
2.1.6 The benefits of cultural diversity
2.1.7 The influence of cultural diversity on tourism and hospitality
2.2 UNESCO
Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
2.3 The future of cultural diversity
2.4 Challenges for the tourism and hospitality industry
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 2.1: American in Paris
Case Study 2.2: Creativity in a tense
situation
Case Study 2.3: Promoting the unpromotional
Website links
References
Part Two Cultural Theories and Practices
3 Intercultural
theories
Introduction
3.1 Communication Resourcefulness Theory (CRT)
3.2 Episode Representation Theory (ERT)
3.3 Expectations Theory
(ET)
3.4 Cultural Identity Negotiation Theory (CINT)
3.5 Meaning of Meaning Theory
3.6 Network Theory in Intercultural Communication
3.7 Taxonomic Approach (TA)
3.8 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT)
3.9 Stranger Theory
3.10 Face-Negotiation Theory
3.11
Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT)
3.12 Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT)
3.13 Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory (CMMT)
3.14 Constructivist Theory (CT)
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Website links
References
4 Cultural practices
and tourism impacts on culture
Introduction
4.1 Erosion of local cultures
4.2 Cultural commoditization and transformation
4.3 Cultural
hostility
4.4 Cultural arrogance
4.5 Authenticity of tourism experiences
4.6 Renaissance of traditional art forms
4.7 Marketing of culture
and violation of rights to own cultural heritage
4.8 Culture change
4.9 Culture diffusion
4.10 Cultural borrowing
4.11 Cultural drift
4.12 Acculturation
4.13 Cultural adaptation
4.14 Cultural adjustment
4.15 Culture assimilation
4.16 Enculturation
4.17 Demonstration
effect
4.18 Cultural conflict
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further readings
Case Study 4.1: Discovering the Maori culture
Website links
References
Part Three Culture and Cultural Differences
5 Culture
Introduction
5.1 Definition of culture
5.2 Culture
as civilization
5.3 Cultures by region
5.4 Culture as religion
5.5 The world's major religions
5.6 Religion by region
5.7 Types and
levels of culture
5.8 Civilization
5.9 Types of cultures in tourism
5.10 The purpose of culture
5.11 Characteristics of culture
5.12
Subcultures
5.13 Culture versus nationality
5.14 Culture versus country of residence
5.15 Culture versus country of birth
5.16 Cultural
identity
5.17 Cultural distance
5.18 The impact of cultural distance on travel
5.19 The measurement of cultural distance
Summary
Discussion
points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 5.1: Micro-cultures of the U.S.
Website links
References
6 Cultural variability
Introduction
6.1 Sources of cultural differences
6.2 Cultural values
6.2.1 Concept and definitions
6.2.2 Culture and values
6.2.3
Value system and value orientation
6.2.4 Value orientation
6.2.5 Types of values
6.2.6 Classification of values
6.2.7 Measurement and
analysis of values
6.2.8 Value studies in tourism
6.2.9 Cultural value dimensions
6.2.9.1 Parson's pattern variables
6.2.9.2 Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck's value orientation
6.2.9.3 Stewart's cultural patterns
6.2.9.4 Hall's cultural differentiation
6.2.9.5 Hofstede's dimensions
of cultural variability
6.2.9.6 Bond's Confucian cultural patterns
6.2.9.7 Argyle's cultural differentiation
6.2.9.8 Schein's, Trompenaars'
and Maznevski's cultural differentiation
6.2.9.9 Schneider and Barsoux's cultural assumptions
6.2.9.10 Inglehart's cultural dimensions
6.2.9.11 Minkov's World Value Survey
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Exercises
Case Study 6.1: The U.S. culture
Website links
References
7 Cultural influences on intercultural communication
Introduction
7.1 The concept of communication
7.2 What
is intercultural communication?
7.3 Difficulties in intercultural communication
7.3.1 Verbal signals
7.3.2 Non-verbal signals
7.3.3
Relationship patterns
7.3.4 Conversation style
7.3.5 Interaction style
7.3.6 Values
7.3.7 Time orientation
7.3.8 Context orientation
7.4 Is intercultural communication possible?
7.5 Ethnocentrism
7.6 Stereotyping
7.7 Prejudices
7.8 Racism
7.9 Strategies for improving
intercultural communication
7.10 The ethics of intercultural communication
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 7.1: Courtesy and politeness in Thailand and Australia
Website links
References
8 Cultural influences on social interaction
Introduction
8.1 Concept and definitions
8.2 Social interaction in tourism
8.3 Intercultural social interaction
8.4 Types of intercultural
interaction
8.5 Model of cross-cultural social interaction
8.6 Contact hypothesis
8.7 Difficulties in cross-cultural interaction
8.8
Culture shock
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further readings
Case Study 8.1: Shanghai night or nightmare?
Website links
References
9 Cultural influences on rules of social interaction
Introduction
9.1 Rules of social interaction
9.2 Orders and types of rules
9.3
Relationship rules
9.4 Cultural influences on rules of social interaction
9.5 Understanding rules of social interaction
9.6 Breaking
rules
9.7 Cross-cultural differences in rules of social interaction
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further
readings
Case Study 9.1: Universal and specific rules of social relationships
websites
References
10 Cultural influences on service
Introduction
10.1 The concept of service
10.2 Service encounter
10.3 Service classification
10.4 Key characteristics of service
10.5
Importance of service perceptions
10.6 Cultural differences in expectations from service
10.7 Service quality and value
10.8 Service
satisfaction
10.9 Do cultural differences always matter?
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further readings
Case Study 10.1: Chinese
travelers in France
Website links
References
11 Cultural influences on ethical behavior
Introduction
11.1 The concept of ethics
11.2
Ethics in tourism
11.3 Ethics in a cross-cultural context
11.4 Cultural influences in ethical behavior
11.5 The most debatable business
ethics issues
11.6 Conflicting ethical behavior and practices in tourism and hospitality. Ethical dilemmas
11.7 Theories and frameworks
dealing with ethical dilemmas
11.8 Strategies for managing business ethical dilemmas
11.9 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 11.1: Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
Website links
References
Part Four
Tourist Behavior
12 Human behavior: its nature and determinants
Introduction
12.1 The concept of human behavior
12.2 Environmental
factors influencing human behavior
12.3 Theories of human behavior
12.4 Basic needs of human behavior
12.5 Factors influencing human
needs
12.6 The concept of tourist behavior
12.7 The nature of tourist behavior
12.8 The meaning of tourist behavior
12.9 The importance
of studying tourist behavior
12.10 The importance of studying tourist behavior in a cross-cultural context
12.11 Benefits of understanding
tourist behavior in a cross-cultural context
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 12.1: The Asian woman's
shopping experience: New research from Thailand
Website links
References
13 Consumer buying behavior
Introduction
13.1 Environmental
Factors
13.1.1 Environmental stimuli
13.2 Buyer's factors
13.2.1 Buyer's personal characteristics
13.2.2 Buyer's psychological characteristics
13.2.3 Decision process
13.3 Other theories of consumer decision-making
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Website
links
References
14 Cultural influences on tourist buying behavior
Introduction
14.1 Cultural influence on buyer's personal characteristics
14.1.1 Gender roles
14.1.2 Lifestyle and activities
14.1.3 Personality
14.1.4 The self concept
14.2 Cultural influences on buyer's psychological
characteristics
14.2.1 Motivation and needs
14.2.2 Perception and image
14.2.3 Learning and knowledge
14.2.4 Attitudes
14.2.5 Attribution
14.3 Cultural influences on buyer's decision process
14.3.1 Need recognition
14.3.2 Information search and choice of information sources
14.3.2.1 The role of reference groups
14.3.2.2 The role of opinion leadership
14.3.2.3 Family decision making
14.3.2.4 Buying roles
14.3.2.5 Level of decision-making
14.3.2.6 Buying new products
14.3.3 Criteria and product evaluation
14.3.4 Purchase decision
14.3.4.1
Purchase risk
14.3.5 Post-purchase behavior/decision
14.3.5.1 Satisfaction
14.3.5.2 Loyalty and commitment
14.3.5.3 Criticism and complaints
14.3.5.4 Product disposal
14.3.6 Beyond the purchase decision
14.3.6.1 Memories and meanings
14.3.6.2 Emotions and feelings
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 14.1: Japanese tourist behavior
Case Study 14.2: Cultural influences
on tourist behavior
Website links
References
Part Five Cross-Cultural Comparison
15 Cultural differences among international societies
Introduction
15.1 Africa
15.2 Asia
15.2.1 Common Asian values
15.2.2 China
15.2.3 Indonesia
15.2.4 Japan
15.2.5 Malaysia
15.2.6 Pakistan
15.2.7 The Philippines
15.2.8 South Korea
15.2.9 Thailand
15.2.10 Vietnam
15.3 Australia
15.4 Europe
15.4.1 Important European values
15.4.2 France
15.4.3 Germany
15.4.4 Italy
15.4.5 Poland
15.4.6 Russia
15.4.7 Spain
15.4.8 United Kingdom
15.5 India
15.6 Latin America
15.6.1 Common Latin American values
15.6.2 Mexico
15.6.3 Brazil
15.7 Middle East
15.7.1 Common Arab values
15.7.2 Saudi Arabia
15.7.3
United Arab Emirates
15.8 North America
15.8.1 Canada
15.8.2 The United States
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Case Study
15.1: Managing in Asia: Cross-cultural dimensions
Website links
References
Part Six Multicultural Competence
16 Multicultural competence
in a global world
Introduction
16.1 The concept of multicultural competence
16.2 Dimensions of multicultural competence
16.3 Other factors
influencing multicultural competence
16.4 Multicultural competence as a process
16.5 Multicultural competence development levels
16.6 Multiculturalism assessment techniques
16.7 An educational challenge
Summary
Discussion points and questions
Further reading
Case Study 16.1: One practical solution to overcoming the language barrier
Website links
References
Conclusion
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