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By Sudhangshu Bose, Fellow, Pratt & Whitney Adjunct Professor, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Hartford Hartford, CT
Description High Temperature Coatings demonstrates how to counteract the thermal effects of the rapid corrosion and degradation of exposed materials
and equipment that can occur under high operating temperatures. This is the first true practical guide on the use of thermally-protective
coatings for high-temperature applications, including the latest developments in materials used for protective coatings. It covers the
make-up and behavior of such materials under thermal stress and the methods used for applying them to specific types of substrates, as
well as invaluable advice on inspection and repair of existing thermal coatings.
With his long experience in the aerospace gas turbine
industry, the author has compiled the very latest in coating materials and coating technologies, as well as hard-to-find guidance on
maintaining and repairing thermal coatings, including appropriate inspection protocols. The book will be supplemented with the latest
reference information and additional support for finding more application-type and industry-type coatings specifications and uses, with
help for the reader in finding more detailed information on a specific type of coating or a specific type of use.
Audience
Primary: Professional engineers in materials engineering, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, and chemical engineering,
Chemists and Physicists with any interest in high temperature physics and physical chemistry
Secondary: Graduate students in materials
engineering, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, and chemical engineering,Graduate students in chemistry and physics
taking courses in solid physics and related subjects in physical chemistry
Contents PREFACE
CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2.0 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
2.1 Thermodynamic Concepts
Enthalpy
Entropy
Free Energy
Equilibrium Constant
Activity Coefficient
2.2 Concept of Kinetics
Activation Energy
Diffusion
2.3 Crystal Structure
Defects in Crystals
2.4 Equilibrium Phases
Binary Phase Diagram
Ternary Phase Diagram
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 3.0 SUBSTRATE ALLOYS
3.1 Temperature Capability
of metal and alloys
3.2 Strengthening Mechanisms
3.3 Titanium Alloys
3.4 Steels
3.5 Nickel-Iron Alloys
3.6 Nickel and Cobalt base Superalloys
3.7 Need for Coatings
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 4.0 OXIDATION
4.1 Oxidation Process
Temperature Effects
Partial Pressure Effects
Composition
Effects
Kinetics of Oxidation
Oxide Scale Protectiveness
4.2 Oxidation Testing and Evaluation
Oxidation Rates
Parabolic Growth, Linear
Growth, Logarithmic Growth
Breakaway Oxidation
Influence of Thermocycling on Oxidation
4.3 Oxidation of Alloys
Binary Alloy Systems
Ternary and Multicomponent Alloy Systems
4.4 Role of Specific Alloying Constituents
Aluminum, Chromium, Cobalt, Silicon, Boron, Titanium,
Manganese,
Tantalum, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Oxygen Reactive Elements, Rhenium / Ruthenium
Reduction of Sulfur Level
4.5 Oxidation in
the Presence of Water vapor
4.6 Oxidation of Polycrystalline Alloys versus Single Crystals
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5.0 HIGH TEMPERATURE CORROSION
5.1 Hot Corrosion Process
The Corroding Salts
Acid and Base Characteristics of Salts
5.2 Corrosion of Metals and Alloys
Solubility
of Oxides in Molten Salts
Mechanism of Sustained Hot Corrosion
Role of Vanadium
5.3 Role of Specific Alloying Elements in Hot Corrosion
of Ni and Co Based Alloys and Coatings
Chromium, Nickel, Cobalt, Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium, Titanium,
Rare Earth Elements, Platinum
5.4 Influence of Other Contaminants
Presence of Carbon
Presence of Chlorides
5.5 Hot Corrosion of TBC
5.6 Hot Corrosion – like Degradation
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6.0 OXIDATION & CORROSION RESISTANT COATINGS
6.1 Requirements for Metallic Coatings
6.2 Coatings Processes
6.3 Diffusion
Coatings
6.3.1 Pack Coatings
6.3.1.1 Aluminiding of Ni base alloys
Pack Process
Above the Pack Process
Pulse Aluminiding
Slurry Aluminiding
Role of Activator
Microstructure and Mechanism of Coatings Formation
6.3.1.2 Aluminiding of Co base alloys
6.3.1.3 Chromium Modified
Aluminide Coating for Ni base alloys
6.3.1.4 Siliconized Coating for Ni base alloys
6.3.1.5 Platinum Modified Aluminide for Ni base alloys
6.3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
6.3.2.1 Platinum Aluminide by Chemical Vapor Deposition
6.3.3 Role of Reactive Elements in Diffusion
Coatings
6.3.4 Microstructure of Platinum Aluminides
6.3.5 Manufacturing Aspects of the Coatings Process
6.3.6 Commercial Diffusion Coatings
6.3.7 Coating - Substrate Interdiffision Effects
6.3.8 Coatings Phase Stability
6.3.8.1 Platinum modified Gamma + Gamma Prime Coating
6.3.9 Oxidation Resistance of Diffusion Coatings
6.3.10 Corrosion Resistance of Diffusion Coatings
6.3.11 Mechanical Properties of Platinum
Aluminides
6.4 Overlay Coatings
6.5 Overlay Coatings by Spray and Arc Processes
6.5.1 Beta – Gamma System Phase Stability
6.5.2 Spray
Coatings
6.5.2.1 Cold Spray
6.5.2.2 Thermal Spray
Detonation Gun Process
Flame Spray Process
High Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF)
Plasma
Spray Process
Low Pressure Plasma Spray (LPPS)
6.5.3 LPPS Coatings Deposition Profile and Microstructure
6.5.4 Arc Process
Electric
Arc Spray
Electro – spark Deposition (ESD)
6.5.5 Coating - Substrate Diffusion Effects
6.5.6 Commercial Overlay Coatings
6.6 Overlay
Coatings by Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
6.6.1 Sputtering
Planer Diode Sputtering
Triode Sputtering
Magnetron Sputtering
Radio Frequency
(R F) Sputtering
6.6.2 Ion Plating
6.6.3 Ion Implantation
6.6.4 Electron Beam Physical Vapor Deposition (EB-PVD)
6.6.5 Microstructure
of Coatings
6.6.6 Mechanical Properties of Coatings and Coated Materials
Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)
Tensile Properties
Tensile Strength and Ductility
Creep and Rupture Properties
Low Cycle and Thermal Fatigue
High Cycle Fatigue
6.7 Relative Oxidation and
Corrosion Resistance of Coatings
Oxidation Resistance
Corrosion Resistance
Diffusion Coatings
Overlay Coatings
Coatings for Marine Application
6.8 Modeling of Oxidation and Corrosion Life
6.8.1 Oxidation Life of Superalloys and Metallic Coatings
6.8.1.1 Life Prediction Methodologies
6.8.1.2 Life Equation Formulation
Weight Change after the First Thermal Cycle
Weight Change after the Second Thermal Cycle
Cumulative
Specific Weight Change of the Sample and Metal Loss
Life Prediction
6.8.2 Hot Corrosion Life of Superalloys and Coatings
6.8.2.1 Contributing
Processes to the Corrosion Rate
Total Contaminant ConcentrationTest Data Generation
6.8.2.2 Life Equation Formulation
Oxidation
Type
I Hot Corrosion
Type II Hot Corrosion
Vanadic Hot Corrosion
Overall Corrosion Rate
Influence of Other Variables
6.9 Interaction of Erosion – Oxidation and Erosion – Corrosion
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7.0 THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS (TBC)
7.1 Temperature Reduction by TBC
7.1.1 Magnitude
of Temperature Reduction
7.1.2 The Benefits of TBC
7.2 Materials Requirements for TBC
7.3 Partially Stabilized Zirconia
7.4 Plasma Sprayed
TBC
The Plasma
7.4.1 The Plasma Spray Process
7.4.2 Microstructure of Plasma Sprayed TBC
7.4.3 Microstructure Development and Structure
Property Relationship
7.4.3.1 Microstructure Formation
Segmented TBC
Phase Identification in Ceramic Coating
7.4.3.2 Role of Substrate
Surface Roughness
7.4.3.3 Thick TBC
7.4.3.4 Thermal Properties and Consequence
Thermal conductivity
7.4.4 Residual Stresses
7.4.5 Role
of Thermally Grown Oxide (TGO)
7.4.6 Structural Properties
7.4.7 Plasma TBC Durability
7.4.7.1 Effects of Thermal cycling in Oxidizing
Environment
7.4.7.2 TBC Degradation Modes and Locations
7.4.7.3 Failure Mechanism of Plasma Sprayed TBC
7.4.7.4 Design Capable Phenomenological
Life Model
Life Equations
Impact of Oxidation
7.5 Electron Beam Physical Vapor deposited (EB-PVD) TBC
7.5.1 Why Electron Beam
7.5.1.1
General Principle
7.5.2 Processing
7.5.3 Microstructure Formation
7.5.3.1 Directed Vapor EB-PVD
7.5.4 TGO
7.5.4.1 Role of Interface and
Surface Roughness
7.5.5 EB-PVD TBC Degradation Modes and Locations
7.5.5.1 Infiltration by Environmental Deposits
7.5.5.2 Hot Corrosion
7.5.5.3 Erosion Damage
Dependence on Microstructure and Test Parameters
7.5.5.4 Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
7.5.5.5 Damage Due to Changes
in the TGO
7.5.6 Role of Residual Stress
Stress within the TGO
Stress within the Ceramic Coating
7.5.7 Role of Oxygen Active Elements
7.5.8 Bond Strength
7.5.9 Structural Properties
7.5.10 Oxidation and Thermocyclic Behavior
7.5.11 Failure Mechanisms and Life Modeling
7.5.11.1 Spall Mechanism and Fracture Mechanics Model
7.5.12 Thermal Properties of TBC
7.5.12.1 Thermal Behavior of 7YSZ
Thermal Expansion
Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat
The Effect of Microstructure
7.5.12.2 Reduction of Thermal Conductivity
Microstructural Modification
Alternate Alloying Additions
Novel Oxide Ceramics
Thermal Consequence of Increased Insulation
7.6 Environmental Barrier Coatings (EBC)
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8.0 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION OF COATINGS
8.1 NDI Techniques
Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection (FPI)
Ultrasonic Inspection
Eddy Current
Infrared Imaging
Acoustic Emission
Photoacoustic Technique
Mid-Infrared Reflectance
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Photoluminescence Piezospectroscopy
Interferometric Techniques
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9.0 COATINGS REPAIR
9.1 Limits to Coatings Repair
9.2 The Repair Process
Component Cleaning
Consequence of Remnants of Old Coating
9.2.1 Removal of Ceramic Coatings
Grit blasting
Alkali Solution
Molten Alkali
Water – jet
9.2.2 Removal of Metallic Coatings
Acid Stripping
9.3 Recoating and Material Restoration
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 10.0 FIELD AND SIMULATED FIELD EXPERIENCE
10.1 Gas Turbine Engine Application
10.1.1 Metallic Coatings
Coating Oxidation
in Aircraft Engines
Coating Cracking in Aircraft Engines
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion in Aircraft and Marine Engine Simulation Test
Oxidation
and Hot Corrosion in Industrial Gas Turbines
Coating Cracking in Industrial Gas Turbine Engines
Marine Application
10.1.2 TBC
10.1.2.1
Plasma Sprayed TBC
TBC on combustor
TBC on vane platform
TBC on vane airfoil
10.1.2.2 EB-PVD TBC
TBC on blades and vanes
10.1.2.3 TBC
in Industrial Gas Turbine Engines
10.2 Other Applications
Coal Gasification Combined Cycle Power Plant
Fast Breeder Reactors
Waste to
Energy Plants
Diesel Engine
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
INDEX
Subject
Author
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