High-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Fundamentals, Design and Applications

Chapter 1 - Introduction to SOFCs
1.2 Background
1.3 Historical Summary
1.4 Zironia Sensors for Oxygen Measurement
1.5 Zirconia Availability and Production
1.6 High-Quality Electrolyte Fabrication Processes
1.7 Electrode Materials and Reactions
1.8 Interconnection for Electrically Connecting the CellsCell and Stack Designs
1.9 SOFC Power Generation Systems
1.10 Fuel Consierations
1.11 Competition and Combination with Head Engines
1.12 Application Areas and Relation to Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells
1.13 SOFC-Related Publications
References

Chapter 2 - History
2.1 The Path to the First Solid Electrolyte Gas Cells
2.2 From Solid Electrolyte Gas Cells to Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
2.3 First Detailed Investigations of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
2.4 Progess in the 1960s
2.5 On the Path to Practical Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
References

Chapter 3 - Thermodynamics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Ideal Reversible SOFC
3.3 Voltage Losses by Ohmic Resistance and by Mixing Effects by Fuel Utilisation
3.4 Thermodynamic Definition of a Fuel Cell Producing Electricity and Heat
3.5 Thermodynamic Theory of SOFC Hybrid Systems
3.6 Design Priciples of SOFC Hybrid Systems
3.7 Summary
References

Chapter 4 - Electrolyte
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fluorite-Structured Electrolytes
4.3 Zirconia-Based Oxide Ion Conductors
4.4 Ceria-Based Oxide Ion Conductors
4.4 Fabrication of ZrO2 and CeO2-Based Electrolyte Films
4.6 Perovskite-Structured Electrolytes
4.6.1 LaAIO3
4.6.2 LaAIO3 Doped with Ca, Sr and Mg
4.6.3 LaAIO3 Doped with Transition Elements
4.7 Oxides with Other Structures
4.7.1 Brownmillerites (e.g. Ba2In2O6)
4.7.2 Non-cubic Oxides
4.8 proton-Conducting Oxides
4.9 Summary
References

Chapter 5 - Cathode
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physical and Physicochemical Properties of Perovskite Cathode Materials
5.2.1 Lattice Structure, Oxygen Nonstoichiometry, and Valence Stability
5.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
5.2.3 Thermal Expansion
5.2.4 Surface Reaction Rate and Oxide Ion Conductivity
5.3 Reactivity of Perovskite Cathodes with ZrO2
5.3.1 Thermodynamic Considerations
5.3.1.1 Reaction of Perovskites with the Zirconia Component in YSZ
5.3.1.2 Reaction of perovskite with the yttria (dopant) component in YSZ
5.3.1.3 Interdiffusion between Perovskite and Fluorite Oxides
5.3.2 Experimental Efforts
5.3.3 Cathode/Electrolyte Reactions and Cell Performance
5.3.4 Cathodes for Intermediate Temperature SOFCs
5.4 Compatibility of Perovskite Cathodes with Interconnects
5.4.1 Compatibility of Cathodes with Oxide Interconnects
5.4.2 Compatibility of Cathodes with Metallic nterconnects
5.5 Fabrication of Cathodes
5.6 Summary
References

Chapter 6 - Anodes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Requirements for an Anode
6.3 Choice of Cermet Anode Components
6.4 Cermet Fabrication
6.5 Anode Behaviour Under Steady-State Conditions
6.6 Anode Behaviour Under Translents Near Equilibrium
6.7 Behaviour of Anodes Under Current Loading
6.8 Operation of Anodes with Fuels other than Hydrogen
6.9 Anodes for Direct Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
6.10 Summary
References

Chapter 7 - Interconnect
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ceramic Interconnects (Lanthanum and Yttrium Chromites)
7.2.1 Electrical Conductivity
7.2.2 Thermal Expansion
7.2.3 Thermal Conductivity
7.2.4 Mechanical Strength
7.2.5 Processing
7.3 Metallic Interconnects
7.3.1 Chromium-Based Alloys
7.3.2 Ferritic Steels
7.3.3 Other Metallic Materials
7.4 Protective Coatings and Contact Materials for Metallic Interconnects
7.5 Summary
References

Chapter 8 - Cell and Stack Designs
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Planar SOFC Design
8.2.1 Cell Fabrication
8.2.1.1 Cell Fabrication Based on Particulate Approach
8.2.1.2 Cell Fabrication Based on Deposition Approach
8.2.2 Cell and Stack Performance
8.3 Tubular SOFC Design
8.3.1 Cell Operation and Performance
8.3.2 Tubular Cell Stack
8.3.3 Alternative Tubular Cell Designs
8.4 Microtubular SOFC Design
8.4.1 Microtubular SOFC Stacks
8.5 Summary
References

Chapter 9 - Electrode Polarisations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Ohmic Polarisation
9.3 Concentration Polarisation
9.4 Activation Polarisation
9.4.1 Cathodic Activation Polarisation
9.4.2 Anodic Activation Polarisation
9.5 Measurement of Polarisation (By Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy)
9.6 Summary
References

Chapter 10 - Testing of Electrodes, Cells and Short Stacks
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Testing Electrodes
10.3 Testing Cells and 'Short' Stacks
10.4 Area-Specific Resistance (ASR)
10.5 Comparison of Test Results on Electrodes and on cells
10.5.1 Non-activated Contributions to the Total Loss
10.5.2 Inaccurate Temperature Measurements
10.5.3 Cathode Performance
10.5.4 Impedance Analysis of Cells
10.6 The Problem of Gas Leakage in Cell Testing
10.6.1 Assessment of the Size of the Cas Leak
10.7 Summary
References

Chapter 11 - Cell, Stack and System Modelling
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Flow and Thermal Models
11.2.1 Mass Balance
11.2.2 Conservation of Momentum
11.2.3 Energy Balance
11.3 Continuum-Level Electrochemistry Model
11.4 Chemical Reactions and Rate Equations
11.5 Cell-and Stack-Level Modelling
11.6 System-Level Modelling
11.7 Thermomechanical Model
11.8 Electrochemical Models at the Electrode Level
11.8.1 Fundamentals and Strategy of Electrode-Level Models
11.8.2 Electrode Models Based on a Mass Transfer Analysis
11.8.3 One-Dimensional Porous Electrode Models Based on Complete Concentration, Potential, and Current Distrbutions
11.8.4 Monte Carolo or Stochastic Electrode Structure Model
11.8.4.1 Electrode or Cell Models Applied to Ohmic Resistance-Dominated Cells
11.8.4.2 Diagnostic Modelling of Electrodes to Elucidate Reaction Mechanisms
11.8.4.3 Models fo Mixed Ionic and Electronic Conducting (MIEC) Electrodes
11.9 Molecular-Level Models
11.10 Summary
References

Chapter 12 - Fuels and Fuel Processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Range of Fuels
12.3 Direct and Indirect Internal Reforming
12.3.1 Direct Internal Reforming
12.3.2 Indirect Internal Reforming
12.4 Reformation of Hydrocarbos by Steam, CO2 and Partial Oxidation
12.5 Direct Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
12.6 Carbon Depostion
12.7 Sulphur Tolerance and Removal
12.8 Anode Materials in the Context of Fuel Processing
12.9 Using Renewable Fuels in SOFCs
12.10 Summary
References

Chapter 13 - Systems and Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Trends in the Eneergy Markets and SOFC Applicability
13.3 Competing Power Generation Systems and SOFC Applications
13.4 SOFC System Designs and Performance
13.4.1 Atmospheric SOFC Systems for Distributed Power Generation
13.4.2 Residential, Auxilliary Power and Other Atmospheric SOFC Systems
13.4.3 Pressurised SOFC/Turbine Hybrid Systems
13.4.4 System Control and Dynamics
13.4.5 SOFC System Costs
13.4.6 Example of a Specific SOFC System Application
13.5 SOFC System Demonstrations
13.5.1 Siemens Westinghouse Systems
13.5.1.1 100 kW Atmospheric SOFC System
13.5.1.2 220 Kw Pressurised SOFC/GT Hybrid System
13.5.1.3 Other Systems
13.5.2 Sulzer Hexis Systems
13.5.3 SOFC Systems of Other Companies
13.6 Summary
References

Chapter 13 - Applications and Demonstrations